THE TREMBLING

GROUND
Prepared by: Asinoel P. Eulin
Chris Fernando
Reymark Uy
Alfredo B. Gache lll
The trembling ground is the result of an
earthquake, which is a violent shaking of the
ground caused by the sudden release of
energy in the Earth’s crust:

Earthquakes occur when tectonic plates grind against each other, causing
stress to build up along a fault line. When the stress is released, the rocks
suddenly slip, sending seismic waves through the Earth's crust and
causing the ground to shake.
 Why is the
Philippines
Prone to
Earthquakes?
In the last four decades of the twentieth century, the Philippines suff ered several
devastating earthquakes. In 1968, 200 people died when the Ruby Tower
collapsed in a 7.3 magnitude earthquake that hit Manila. More than 6 000 people
died in a tsunami caused by a 7.9 magnitude earthquake in the Moro Gulf in 1976.
On July 16, 1990 a powerful earthquake hit Luzon wreaking havoc that is un-
equaled in deaths, property damage, and psychological shock. The 1990 earth-
quake had a magnitude of 7.8, and produced a 125 km long ground rupture that
stretches from Dingalan, Aurora to Kayapa, Nueva Vizcaya resulting from the
strike slip movement across the Philippine fault line and the Digdig fault. Damage
to buildings, infrastructures, and properties amounted to an estimated Php 10 B.
But what is a fault? How are faults related to earthquakes?
Diastrophism refers to all the movements in the
lithosphere. Forces deep within the earth act on
the crust causing it to move. The movement may
be so strong and sudden that the ground literally
shakes. An earthquake is the trembling of the
earth's surface. Earthquakes occur when energy
stored within the earth in the form of strain in rock
layers is released. This energy reaches the earth's
surface through waves. Some earthquakes are
associated with volcanic eruptions while most
occur because large pieces of crust move suddenly
and violently along fault lines (areas where rocks
break). Human activities, such as filling of
reservoirs with water, injecting fluids into deep
wells for waste disposal, and firing underground
nuclear test blasts may also lead to earthquakes.
Stressful Forces

Stress in the crust creates faults. This stress may be due to any
of the following forces:
a. Tension forces stretch or pull rock
layers from opposite directions.
b. Compression forces push rock
layers from opposite sides.
c. Shearing forces pull rock layers in
diff erent directions.
Rock layers (a) before stress, (b) after
compression, (c) after tension, and (d) after
shearing Compressional or tensional forces
may cause rock lay- ers to tilt, bend or break.
 Folded rock

When rocks crumple or wrinkle due to

pushing from both directions, folding occurs.
Mountains are the highest regions of
deformed and disturbed rocks with steep
slopes. These rocks were pushed high
usually more than 600 m from its
surroundings due to forces within the earth.
They are formed when masses of rocks have
been folded, tilted, and shaped into domes
or sometimes build up from volcanic
.materials
 Fold Center

When the direction of the bending of

the rock layer is upward, an anticline is
produced. When the rock layer bends
downward, the fold is called a syncline.
There are occasions when the rock
layers are subjected to very strong
forces which they cannot withstand.
The rock layer then breaks and causes
tremors. This is called faulting.
 An Anticline and a syncline

M o s t e a r t h q u a ke s o c c u r b e c a u s e o f t h e s u d d e n s l i p a l o n g g e o l o g i c
f a u l t s . Ro c k s g e n e r a l l y re s i s t t h e s e f o r c e s a n d r e m a i n s t a t i o n a r y. T h e y
a re a b l e t o s t r e t c h a n d w i t h - s t a n d t h e f o rc e s a p p l i e d t o t h e m . H o w e v e r ,
o v e r h u n d r e d s o f y e a r s w h e n t h e r o c k s fi n a l l y e x c e e d e d t h e i r s t r e n g t h s
o r e l a s t i c l i m i t s , t h e y s n a p , a n d a n e a r t h q u a ke o c c u r s . T h i s i s c a l l e d t h e
e l a s t i c r e b o u n d t h e o r y , m u c h l i ke a s t r e t c h e d r u b b e r b a n d t h a t s u d d e n l y
s n a p s . T h i s t h e o r y s t a t e s t h a t d u r i n g a n e a r t h q u a ke , t h e ro c k s u n d e r
s t r a i n s u d d e n l y b re a k , c re a t i n g a f r a c t u r e a l o n g a f a u l t . W h e n a f a u l t
s l i p s , m o v e m e n t i n t h e c r u s t a l ro c k s c a u s e s v i b r a t i o n s o r t r e m o r s . T h e
s l i p s t a r t s a t t h e f o c u s a n d t r a v e l s a l o n g t h e f a u l t . Wa v e s r a d i a t e a l o n g
t h e r u p t u re d s u r f a c e a n d g i v e r i s e t o v i b r a t i o n s w h i c h a r e p r o p a g a t e d a s
s e i s m i c w a v e s . Af t e r t h e t re m o r , s t r a i n s b e g i n t o b u i l d u p a g a i n u n t i l
s u c h a t i m e t h a t i t i s g re a t e r t h a n t h e f o r c e s t h a t h o l d t h e r o c k s
t o g e t h e r. T h e f a u l t s n a p s a g a i n a n d c a u s e s a n o t h e r e a r t h q u a ke .
 TYPE OF FAULT

• T h e p ro p e r t i e s o f a n e a r t h q u a ke d e p e n d o n t h e t y p e o f f a u l t . Fa u l t s a re c l a s s i fi e d
a c c o rd i n g t o t h e d i re c t i o n s b y w h i c h ro c k l a y e r s m o v e .

• A n o r m a l f a u l t o c c u r s w h e n o n e b l o c k o f ro c k m o v e s d o w n a n d t h e o t h e r m o v e s
up or vice versa.

• I n a t h r u s t o r re v e r s e f a u l t , o n e b l o c k m o v e s u p w a r d i n re l a t i o n t o t h e o t h e r. T h i s
h a p p e n s w h e n f o rc e s p u s h p o r t i o n s o f t h e c r u s t t o g e t h e r. T h e t w o f a u l t s p ro d u c e
vertical displacements.

• T h e s t r i ke - s l i p f a u l t s p ro d u c e a h o r i z o n t a l d i s p l a c e m e n t o r a s i d e b y s i d e s l i d i n g
m o v e m e n t . T h e y a re u s u a l l y f o u n d a l o n g b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n t w o p l a t e s t h a t a re
s l i d i n g p a s t e a c h o t h e r. A l t h o u g h f a u l t s m a y b e v i s i b l e f ro m t h e s u r f a c e , t h e y
m a y a l s o l i e d e e p u n d e r g ro u n d a n d m a y s t re t c h f ro m a m e t e r t o s e v e r a l h u n d re d s
of kilometers long.
Seismic Waves

As rock layers break and move, the stored energy in the rock is
released in the form of seismic waves. Earthquakes produce
two types of seismic waves: body waves and surface waves.
Body Wave

Body waves are elastic waves that propagate through the

earth's interior. Body waves are the source of information used
to image the earth's interior. Like the ripples on the surface of
the pond, these waves propagate away from the source in all
directions. Seismic body waves can be further subdivided into
two classes of waves: P waves and S waves.
 Surface Wave

S u r f a c e w a v e s a re w a v e s t h a t p ro p a g a t e a l o n g t h e e a r t h ’ s s u r f a c e . T h e i r a m p l i t u d e
a t t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e e a r t h c a n b e v e r y l a rg e b u t d e c a y s ex p o n e n t i a l l y w i t h d e p t h .
S u r f a c e w a v e s p ro p a g a t e a t s p e e d s t h a t a re s l o w e r t h a n S w a v e s , a n d a re l e s s
e ffi c i e n t l y g e n e r a t e d b y b u r i e d s o u rc e s . . L i ke b o d y w a v e s , t h e re a re t w o c l a s s e s o f
s u r- f a c e w a v e s t h a t a re d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y t h e t y p e o f p a r t i c l e m o t i o n t h e y re q u i re o n
t h e m e d i u m . T h e fi r s t k i n d o f s u r f a c e w a v e i s c a l l e d a Lo v e w a v e , n a m e d a ft e r Lo v e ,
a B r i t i s h m a t h e m a t i c i a n , w h o w o r ke d o u t t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l f o r t h i s k i n d o f
w a v e i n 1 9 1 1 . I t i s t h e f a s t e s t s u r f a c e w a v e a n d m o v e s t h e g ro u n d f ro m s i d e - t o - s i d e .
T h e o t h e r k i n d o f s u r f a c e w a v e i s t h e Ra y l e i g h w a v e , n a m e d f o r J o h n Wi l l i a m S t r u t t ,
Lo rd Ra y l e i g h , w h o m a t h e m a t i c a l l y p re d i c t e d t h e ex i s t e n c e o f t h i s k i n d o f w a v e i n
1 8 8 5 . A Ra y l e i g h w a v e ro l l s a l o n g t h e g ro u n d j u s t l i ke a w a v e ro l l s a c ro s s a l a ke o r
a n o c e a n . B e c a u s e i t ro l l s , I t m o v e s t h e g ro u n d u p a n d d o w n a n d s i d e - t o - s i d e i n t h e
s a m e d i re c t i o n t h a t t h e w a v e i s m o v i n g .
Measurements of Earthquakes

T h e r e a r e t w o w a y s b y w h i c h s c i e n t i s t s q u a n t i f y t h e s i z e o f a n e a r t h q u a ke : i n t e n s i t y a n d
m a g n i t u d e . T h e i n t e n s i t y o f a n e a r t h q u a ke i s m e a s u r e d b y i t s d a m a g e t o p r o p e r- t i e s a n d
i t s e ff e c t s o n m a n . I t d i ff e r s f r o m p l a c e t o p l a c e d e p e n d i n g o n t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e
epicenter, character of the ground, stability of foundation, building materials used, and
other variables. Can you name other factors? While intensity refers to physical and
o b s e r v a b l e d e s t r u c t i o n t h a t t h e e a r t h q u a ke p r o d u c e d , t h e e a r t h q u a ke ' s m a g n i t u d e
describes the amount of energy released at the focus or origin. The relative amount of
e n e r g y r e l e a s e d a n d t h e m o v e m e n t s t h a t t h e e a r t h q u a ke p r o d u c e d a r e t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e
needle of the seismograph. The scale used internationally at present was made by an
A m e r i c a n g e o l o g i s t C h a r l e s F. R i c h t e r i n 1 9 3 5 . Fo r e v e r y u n i t i n t h e R i c h t e r s c a l e , t h e
m a g n i t u d e i n c r e a s e s b y t h i r t y t i m e s . T h e r e f o r e , a n e a r t h q u a ke w i t h a m a g n i t u d e o f 7 h a s
thirty times more seismic energy than that of magnitude 6 but thirty times less than that
of magnitude 8. Magnitude 8 has in fact a seismic energy equal to 10 000 atomic bombs
t h a t d e s t r o y e d H i r o s h i m a i n Wo r l d Wa r I I .
Eff ect of Earthquakes

N e e d l e s s t o s a y , t h e e ff e c t s o f a n e a r t h q u a ke w i l l v a r y f r o m p l a c e t o p l a c e . I t d e p e n d s
g r e a t l y o n t h e l o c a l s u r f a c e a n d t h e u n d e r g r o u n d g e o l o g i c c o n d i t i o n s . Re m e m b e r t h e s o n g
t h a t g o e s … “ T h e f o o l i s h m a n b u i l t h i s h o u s e u p o n t h e s a n d ? ” D e fi n i t e l y , s t r u c t u r e s b u i l t
o n s o f t a n d l o o s e m a t e r i a l s a r e l i ke l y t o e x p e r i e n c e n o t i c e a b l e e ff e c t s t h a n s t r u c t u r e s o n
a n a r e a o v e r a n e x p a n s e o f g r a n i t e . T h e s l i g h t e s t e ff e c t s o f e a r t h q u a ke m a y b e f e l t b y
very perceptive people under favorable circumstances. These will include disturbance of
d e l i c a t e l y b a l a n c e d o b j e c t s , t o s l i g h t o s c i l l a t i o n o f w a t e r i n a g l a s s . W h e n e a r t h - q u a ke s
r e a c h a n i n t e n s i t y 4 , t h e e ff e c t s w i l l b e f e l t b y p e o p l e b o t h i n d o o r s a n d o u t d o o r s .
H a n g i n g o b j e c t s s w i n g ; w i n d o w s , g l a s s e s , a n d d o o r s r a t t l e ; p e o p l e a r e a w a ke n e d f r o m
their sleep; smail, light, and unstable objects may overturn; liquids may spill from open
c o n t a i n e r s ; a n d e v e n p a r ke d v e h i c l e s r o c k n o t i c e a b l y. Ve r y s t r o n g e a r t h q u a ke s h o w e v e r ,
will already create panic among people as they begin to rush outdoors. Heavy furnitures
m o v e a n d t o p p l e , w a l l s c r a c k , o l d a n d p o o r l y c o n s t r u c t e d b u i l d i n g s s u ff e r h e a v y d a m a g e .
PREDICTING EARTHQUAKES

Pe o p l e o ft e n a s k w h e n a n d w h e re t h e n ex t b ig q u a ke w i l l h ap p e n . Ho w
s t ro n g w i l l i t b e ? A l t h o u g h s c i e n t i s t s a re j i v i n g t h e i r b e s t e ff o r t s t o p ro v i d e
a n s w e r s t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s , t h e a b i l i t y t o p re d i c t t h e ex a c t t i m e a n d p l a c e
w h e re h e e a r t h q u a ke w i l l t a ke p l a c e re m a i n s o b s c u re . A re a s al o n g p l at e
b o u n d a r i e s t h a t h a v e s h o w n p ro n o u n c e d s e i s m i c a c t i v it i e s a re k n o w n a s
s e i s m i c g a p s . T h e y a re b e i n g m o n i t o re d in o rd e r t o c a lc u la t e t h a t a n e ar t h -
q u a ke o f s u c h m a g n i t u d e i s l i ke l y t o t a ke p l ac e w i t h i n a t i m e p e r i o d . O n e o f
t h e g a p s t h a t i s o f i n t e re s t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s t h e S a n A n d re a s Fa u l t i n
C a l i f o rn i a w h i c h i s t h e c a u s e o f t h e S a n Fr an c i s c o e a r t h q u a ke o f 1 9 0 6 an d
t h e Lo s A n g e l e s e a r t h q u a ke o f 1 9 9 4 . S c i e n t i s t s fo re s e e t h at an - o t h e r b i g
e a r t h q u a ke i s ex p e c t e d t o t a ke p l a c e b e t w e e n 2 0 0 3 an d 2 0 3 4 .
Protection from Earthquake
Damage

There are suggestions from experts on how people can lessen or

avoid earthquake damage. Buildings should be built with a greater
number of vertical columns and mechanisms to reduce lateral
movements during a quake, like hydraulic pistons, giant springs,
strong columns. Sound structural concepts must be adopted.
Special care must also be taken in site selection, design, and
construction of bridges. People should also avoid construction in
soft grounds, sites near excavations, or near active faults. Full
account of soil conditions must be taken before design and during
construction.
Earthquake Safety What to Do
During an Earthquake

1. If you are indoors, duck or drop down to the fl oor. Take cover
under a sturdy desk, table or other furniture. Hold on to it
and be prepared to move with it. Hold the position until the
ground stops shaking, and until it is safe to move. Stay clear
of windows, stoves, and heavy furniture or appliances. Stay
inside. Outside, you may be injured by shattering glass,
electric wires, or falling building debris. If you are in a
crowded area, take cover and stay where you are. Stay calm
and encourage others to do the same.
2 . I f y o u a re o ut s i d e , g e t i n t o t he o p e n, a w a y f ro m b u i l d i n g s a n d p o w e r l i n e s .

3 . I f y o u a re d r i vi ng , s t o p i f i t i s s a f e , b u t s t a y i n s i d e y o ur c a r. S t a y a w a y
f ro m b r i d g e s , fl yo ve r s , o ve r p a s s e s , a nd t un ne l s . A l l t h e s e m a y c o l l a p s e . M o v e
yo u r ca r a s f a r o u t o f t h e no rm a l t r a ffi c p a t t e rn a s p o s s i b l e . I f p o s s i b l e , a v o i d
s t o p p i ng un d e r t re e s , l i g ht p o s t s , p o w e r l i ne s , o r s i g ns / b i l l b o a rd s .

4 . I f y o u a re i n a m o un t a i n o u s a re a , o r ne a r un s t a b l e s l o p e s o r c l i ff s , b e a l e r t
f o r f a l l i n g ro ck a n d o t h e r d e b r i s t ha t c o ul d b e l o o s e n e d b y t h e e a r t h q u a ke
a n d ca u s e l a nd s l i d e s .

5 . I f y o u a re a t t he b e a ch, m o v e t o a h i g h e r g ro un d . E a r t hq u a ke m a y
g e ne r a t e t s u na m i s o r g i a n t s e a wa v e s .