Chapter 7: First-Order Circuits

ECE 280: Electric Circuit Analysis

 First-Order Circuits
Chapter 7
7.1 The Source-Free RC Circuit
7.2 The Source-Free RL Circuit
7.3 Unit-step Function
7.4 Step Response of an RC Circuit
7.5 Step Response of an RL Circuit

2
 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (1)
• A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order
differential equation. By KCL
v dv
iR  iC  0 C 0
R dt
𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑣 −1 −𝑡
∫ 𝑣
= ∫
𝑅𝐶 0
𝑑𝑡 →𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑣 (𝑡 ) ) −𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑣 ( 0 ) ) =
𝑅𝐶
0

 v(t )  t v(t ) t
 RC
ln     e
 v(0)  RC v(0)
t t
 
 v(t ) v(0)e RC
V0 e RC
(1)
• Equation (1) describes the natural (transient response of the capacitor) i.e
the response of the capacitor when the circuit is source free. 3
 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (2)
• v(0)=V0 is the initial voltage across the capacitor terminals.
• As discussed in the previous chapter the capacitor voltage
cannot change abruptly. i.e. v(0)= v(0-)= v(0+) where v(0-) is the
capacitor voltage just before switching and v(0+) is the
capacitor voltage just after switching. However, this does not
apply for the capacitor current and any other variable quantity
(for example vR ) in the RC circuit

• In general any variable quantity in RC source free circuit will

have the form
𝑥 ( 𝑡 )= 𝑥 ¿
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 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (3)
• The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior (in
terms of voltages and currents) of the circuit itself, with no
external sources of excitation.
Time constant  R C
Decays more slowly

Decays faster

• The time constant  of a circuit is the time required for the response to
decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its initial value.
• v decays faster for small t and slower for large t.
5
 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (4)
• With a calculator, it is easy to show that the value
of v(t)/V0 is as shown in Table 7.1.
• It is evident from Table 7.1 that the voltage is less
than 1 percent of V0 after 5 (five time constants).
• Thus, it is customary to assume that the capacitor
is fully discharged (or charged) after five time
constants. In other words, it takes 5 for the circuit
to reach its final state or steady state when no
changes take place with time.
• Notice that for every time interval of , the voltage
is reduced by 36.8 percent of its previous value,
regardless of the value of t.
• v(t+)=v(t)/e=0.368v(t)
• To find  from the response curve, draw the
tangent to the curve at t=0 as shown in Fig. The
tangent intercepts with the time axis at t=.
6
 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (5)
• With the voltage v(t), we can find the current, iR(t)

• The power dissipated in the resistor is

• The energy absorbed by the resistor up to time t is

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 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (6)
Steps for solving the RC-Circuits:
1. Find the initial condition. For the case of capacitor voltage
find v(0) .
2. Convert the circuit to the form of 1 resistor and 1 capacitor
by finding Rth and Ceq.
3. Apply equation (1) where R=Rth and C=Ceq.

• In finding the time constant =RC,

R is often the Thevenin equivalent
resistance at the terminals of the
capacitor; that is, we take out the
capacitor C and find R RTh at its
terminals
8
 7.1 The Source-Free RC Circuit (7)
Example 1
Refer to the circuit below, let vc(0)=15 V, determine vC, vx,
and ix for t ≥ 0. 20  5 
Req (12   8 ) / /5   4 
20   5  

  Req C 4  0.1 F 0.4s

Solution:
• First, form the equivalent
circuit shown below. We find we can use voltage division to get vx
the equivalent resistance or
the Thevenin resistance at
the capacitor terminals.

9
 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (8)
Practice Problem 1
Refer to the circuit below, determine vC, vx, and io for t ≥ 0.
Assume that vC(0) = 30 V.

Answer: vC = 30e–0.25t V ; vx = 10e–0.25t ; io = –2.5e–0.25t A

10
11
7.1 The Source-Free RC Circuit (9)
Example 2
The switch in circuit below is opened at t = 0, find v(t) for t ≥ 0.
Using voltage division
(12 / /4) 3
vc (0)  24 V= 24 V=8 V
((12 / /4)  6) 9

After the switch is open (for t>0), we

have source free RC circuit having
Solution: the capacitor and the 12  and 4
For the switch is closed for t < 0; theresistors in parallel.
capacitor is an open circuit to dc, Req (12 / /4) 3     Req C 3 / 6 1 / 2 s
as represented in the figure below.
t t
 
Req C
v(t ) vc (0)e 8e (1/2)
8e  2t V

1 1 1
wc (0)  Cvc2 (0)   (8) 2 5.33 J
2 2 6
Answer: V(t) = 8e–2t V 12
 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (1)
• A first-order RL circuit consists of a inductor L (or its
equivalent) and a resistor (or its equivalent)

By KVL vL  vR 0
di
L  iR  0
dt
𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑖 −𝑅 −𝑅
∫ 𝑖
= ∫
𝐿 0
𝑑𝑡 →𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑖 ( 𝑡 ) ) −𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑖 ( 0 ) ) =
𝐿
𝑡
0
−𝑅 −𝑅
 i (t )  R i (t )  R t 𝐿
𝑡
𝐿
𝑡
ln    t   e L
 𝑖 ( 𝑡 ) =𝑖 ( 0 ) 𝑒 = 𝐼 0 𝑒 (3)
 i (0)  L i (0)
• Equation (3) describes the natural (transient response of the inductor) i.e the
response of the inductor when the circuit is source free.
13
 7.1 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (2)
• i(0)=I0 is the initial inductor current.
• As discussed in the previous chapter the inductor current cannot
change abruptly. i.e. i(0)= i(0-)= i(0+) where i(0-) is the inductor
current just before switching and i(0+) is the inductor current just
after switching. However, this does not apply for the inductor voltage
and any other variable quantity (for example vR ) in the RL circuit

• In general any variable quantity in RL source free circuit will have the
form
𝑥 ( 𝑡 )= 𝑥 ¿

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 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (3)

A general form representing a RL

 t/
i (t ) I 0 e
L
where 
R

• The time constant  of a circuit is the time required for the response to decay by a factor
of 1/e or 36.8% of its initial value.
• i(t) decays faster for small t and slower for large t.
• The general form is very similar to a RC source-free circuit. 15
 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (4)
• We can find the voltage across the resistor as:

• The power dissipated in the resistor is

• The energy absorbed by the resistor is

• OR

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 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (5)
Comparison between a RL and RC circuit

A RL source-free circuit A RC source-free circuit

L
i (t ) I 0 e  t/
where  v(t ) V0 e  t / where  RC
R

17
 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (6)
• The key to working with a source-free RL circuit is finding:
 t / L
i (t ) I 0 e where 
R
1. The initial voltage i(0) = I0 through the inductor.
2. The time constant  = L/R.
• When a circuit has a single inductor
and several resistors and
dependent sources, the Thevenin
equivalent can be found at the
terminals of the inductor to
form a simple RL circuit. Also, one
can use Thevenin’s theorem when
several inductors can be combined
to form a single equivalent
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inductor.
 7.2 The Source-Free RL Circuit (7)
Example 3
Assuming i(0)=10 A, calculate i(t) and ix(t) in the circuit of in the circuit shown below.
Applying KVL to the two loops results in
1
2(i1  i2 )  1 0  i1  i2  (1)
2
4i2  2(i2  i1 )  3i1 0   5i1  6i2 0 (2)

Solving (1) & (2) simultaneously, we

have 1 5
Solution: i1  3 A  i0  i1 3 A; i2 i1   A
2 2
The equivalent resistance is
v0 1 L 1
H 3
the same as theThevenin Req  RTh        12  s
resistance at the inductor i0 3 Req 3  2
terminals. Because of the Thus, the current through the inductor is
dependent source, we insert a
voltage source v0= 1 V at the i (t ) i (0)e  t / 10e  (2/3) t A t 0
inductor terminals a-b, as in Fig. The voltage across the inductor is

Since the inductor and the resistor are in parallel

19
 7.2 The Source-Free RL Circuit (8)
Example 3 Cont’d (Method 2- Solution)
Assuming i(0)=10 A, calculate i(t) and ix(t) in the circuit of in the circuit shown below.
KVL to loop 2
5
4i2  2(i2 - i1 ) - 3i1 0  i2  i1 (2)
6
Substituting (2) in (1)
di1 di1 2
 4i1  4i2 0   i1 0 but i1 (t ) i (t )
dt dt 3

i (t ) t
di 2 di 2  i (t )  2
i
 dt 
3 
i (0)
i
 
0
3
dt  ln 
 i (0)



3
t

i (t )
Applying KVL directly to  e  (2/3) t
i (0)
the above circuit
 i (t ) i (0)e  (2/3) t 10e  (2/3) t A
KVL to loop 1 Thus, the current through the inductor is
1 di1 di i (t ) i (0)e  t /
10e  (2/3) t A t 0
 2(i1  i2 ) 0  1  4i1  4i2 0 (1)
2 dt dt
20
7.2 The Source-Free RL Circuit (9)
Practice Problem
Find i and vx in the circuit.

Assume that i(0) = 5 A.

Answer: i(t) = 5e–53t A

21
22
 7.2 The Source-Free RL Circuit (10)
Example 4
The switch in the circuit of following Fig. has been closed for a long time.
At t=0, the switch is opened, find i(t) for t > 0.

Inductor becomes a short- circuit for t < 0

Solution:
8
i (t )  5 A  2 A=i(0-) i(0)
8   12  
• When the switch is
closed for a long time For t > 0
before t=0, the (current
inductor becomes a source-
short- circuit, disconnected,
therefore, we need to we have the
determine the inductor following
R (5 ) / /(12  8) 4 
current i(0) first. circuit.
eq

• No current flows 
L 2 H 1
  s i (t ) i (0)e  t / 2e  2t A 23
Req 4 2
through the 5 
 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (6)
Example 4
For the circuit, find i(t) for t > 0.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: i(t) = 2e–2t A

24
7.2 The Source-Free RL Circuit (11)
Practice Problem
The switch in the circuit of following Fig. below has been closed for a
long time. At t=0, the switch is opened, find i(t) for t > 0.

Answer:

25
26
 7.3 Unit-Step Function (1)
• The unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative values of t and 1
for positive values of t.

 0, t 0
u (t ) 
1, t 0

 0, t  to
u (t  to ) 
1, t  to

 0, t   to
u (t  to ) 
1, t   to
27
 7.3 Unit-Step Function (2)
Unit step function can be used to represent
an abrupt change source voltage or current.

1. voltage source.

2. for current source:

28
 7.4 The Step-Response
of a RC Circuit (1)
• The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the excitation is the
step function, which may be a voltage or a current source.
dv v  Vs u (t )
iC C ; iR 
dt R
• Initial condition:
v(0-) = v(0+) = V0

• Applying KCL,

dv v  Vs u (t )
iC  iR 0  C  0
dt R
iR or
iC dv (v  Vs )
 u (t )
dt RC
29
•
7.4 The Step-Response of a RC Circuit (2)
• The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the excitation is the
step function, which may be a voltage or a current source.

dv (v  Vs ) dv 1 1
 u (t )   u (t )dt  dt for t  0
dt RC (v  Vs ) RC RC
v (t )
dv
t
1 v(t ) t t t

v (0  )
( v  Vs )
 
t 0
RC
dt  ln( v  Vs )
v(0 )

RC t 0

RC
 v(t )  Vs  t v(t )  Vs  t / RC
ln      e
 v(0 )  Vs  RC v(0 )  Vs

v(t )  Vs
v(0 )  Vs
 e  t / RC
 v (t )  Vs  v(0 
)  Vs e t / RC

v(t ) Vs  V0  Vs e  t / RC Vs  V0  Vs e  t / ,   RC t 0

v(t ) vt  vss

vt V0  Vs e  t / , t  0 : transient response vss Vs steady state response
30
7.4 The Step-Response of a RC Circuit (3)
• The transient response, vt, is temporary; it is the portion of the
complete response that decays to zero as time approaches
infinity.
• The transient response is the circuit’s temporary response that
will die out with time.
• The steady-state response, vss, is the portion of the complete
response that remains after the transient response has died
out.
• The steady-state response is the behavior of the circuit a long
time after an external excitation is applied.

31
 7.4 The Step-Response
of a RC Circuit (4)
• Integrating both sides and considering the initial conditions,
the solution of the equation is:

V0 t 0
v(t )   t /
V
 s  (V0  V s ) e t 0

Final value at t Initial value at Source-free

-> ∞ t=0 Response

Complete Response = Natural response + Forced Response

(stored energy) (independent source)

= V0e–t/τ + Vs(1–e–t/τ)
32
 7.4 The Step-Response
of a RC Circuit (5)
• If we assume that the capacitor is uncharged initially, we set V0=0
0 t 0
v(t )   t /
Vs (1  e ) t 0
Or v(t ) Vs (1  e  t / ) u (t )
The current through the capacitor is obtained

dv(t ) CVS  t / VS  t /
i (t ) C  e u (t )  e u (t )
dt  R

Step response of an RC circuit with

initially uncharged capacitor: (a)
voltage
response, (b) current response.
33
 7.4 The Step-Response
of a RC Circuit (6)
Three steps to find out the step response of an RC
circuit:
1. The initial capacitor voltage v(0).
2. The final capacitor voltage v() : final or steady-state
value- DC voltage across C.
We obtain item 1 from the given
3. The time constant . circuit for t < 0 and items 2 and 3
from the circuit for t > 0.

 t /
v (t )  v ()  [v (0)  v ()] e
Note: The above method is a short-cut method. You may also determine the solution
by setting up the circuit formula directly using KCL, KVL , ohms law, capacitor and
inductor laws. 34
7.4 The Step-Response of a RC Circuit (7)
Example 5
The switch in Fig. below has been in position A for a long time. At the switch moves to B.
Determine v(t) for t > 0 for and calculate its value at t = 1 s and t= 4 s.
Using the fact that the capacitor voltage cannot
change instantaneously

For t >0 the switch is in position B. The

Thevenin resistance connected to the capacitor
is RTh= 4 k and the time constant is

Solution:
For t<0, the switch is at position A. The Since the capacitor acts like an open circuit to
capacitor acts like an open circuit to dc, but v is dc at steady state v()=30 V
the same as the voltage across the 5k
resistor. Hence, the voltage across the
capacitor just before t=0 is obtained
by voltage division as
35
 7.4 The Step-Response of a RC Circuit (8)
Practice Problem
Find v(t) for t > 0 in the circuit in below. Assume the switch has been
open for a long time and is closed at t = 0. Calculate v(t) at t = 0.5.

Answer: v(t ) 15e  2t  5 and v(0.5) = 0.5182V

36
37
 7.5 The Step-response
of a RL Circuit (1)
• The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the excitation is the
step function, which may be a voltage or a current source.

• Initial current
i(0-) = i(0+) = Io

• Final inductor current

i(∞) = Vs/R

• Time constant t = L/R

t
Vs Vs  
i (t )   ( I o  )e u (t )
R R
38
 7.5 The Step-Response
of a RL Circuit (2)
Three steps to find out the step response of an RL
circuit:
1. The initial inductor current i(0) at t = 0+.
2. The final inductor current i(): the steady state current
3. The time constant .

 t /
i (t )  i ()  [i (0)  i ()] e

Note: The above method is a short-cut method. You may also determine the
solution by setting up the circuit formula directly using KCL, KVL , ohms law,
capacitor and inductor laws. 39
 7.5 The Step-Response of a RL Circuit (4)
Example 6
Find i(t) in the circuit of the following Fig. Assume that the
switch has been closed for a long time
Since the inductor current cannot change
instantaneously

When t > 0, the switch is open. The 2  and 3 

resistors are in series, so that

Solution:
When t < 0, the 3  resistor is short-circuited, The Thevenin resistance across the
and the inductor acts like a short circuit. The inductor terminals is
current through the inductor at t=0- (i.e., just
before t=0 ) is

40
 7.5 The Step-Response
of a RL Circuit (5)
Practice Problem
The switch in the circuit shown below has been closed for a
long time. It opens at t = 0.
Find i(t) for t > 0.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: i (t ) 2  e  10t
41