UNIT-1 COMPUTER NETWORKS

COMPUTER NETWORK :
“Computer network’’ it means a collection of autonomous computers interconnected
by a single network. These networks allow computers to communicate with each
other and enables the sharing of information, files, applications, and hardware like
printers and storage devices.
Types of Computer Networks :

• Local Area Network (LAN): A network that connects devices in a limited area, like a
home or office.

• Wide Area Network (WAN): A network that spans a large geographic area, often
connecting multiple LANs. Often a country or continent
•Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A network that covers a city or a large campus.

•Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN): A LAN that uses wireless technology for
connections.
In summary, computer networks play a crucial role in modern computing and
communication, enabling connectivity and collaboration across diverse
environments.
Topology : Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the
components are interconnected to each other. Here are the main types of network
topologies:
Network Topologies :
The main types of topologies are : Bus, Ring, Star, Mesh, Tree, Hybrid.

1. Bus Topology :

• Bus topology is a network topology in which all nodes are connected to a single
cable known as central cabel or bus.
• It acts as shared communication medium.
i.e. if any device wants to send the data to other devices. Then it will send the data
over the bus. Which in turn sends the data to all attached devices.
• Useful for small number of devices.
• As if the bus is damaged then the whole network fails.

2.Ring Topology :

• It is a network topology in which nodes are exactly connected to neighboring

devices for communication purpose and thus forming a single continuous path
for transmission. It is called a ring topology as its formation is like a ring.
• Does not need any central server to control the connectivity amoung the nodes.
• If single node is damaged , whole network fails.
• Ex : SONET network, SDH network etc.
3.Star Topology : 4.Mesh Topology :

• In this all nodes are connected to a single device known as a central device.
• Requires more cables as compare to other topologies.
• Therefore it is more robust as a failure in one cable will only disconnect a specific
computer connected to that cable.
• If the central device fails, whole network fails.
• Easy to install, manage and troubleshoot used in home & office.

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1. Physical Layer :
 The lowest layer of OSI model is “Physical Layer”.

 The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from
one node to another node.

 It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface

specifications.
2. Data-Link Layer :
 This layer is responsible for data frames are transferred without errors.

 It sets the format for data on the network.

 It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.

  Data Link Layer is divided into 2 sublayers:
1. Logical Link Control Layer
2. Media Access Control Layer

3. Network Layer :
 Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to other, located
in different networks.

 It also takes care of packet routing. i.e. selection of shortest path from source to
the destination to transmit the packet.

 The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by network layer.

 Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

4. Transport Layer :
 The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.

 It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units
known as segments.

 This layer can be termed as end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point

connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

5. Session Layer :
 It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

 The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating devices.
6. Presentation Layer :
 Presentation layer is also called as translation layer.

 It acts as a data translator for a network.

 This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.
7. Application Layer :
 An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer
functions.

 It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.

 This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

 Ex : Browser, Messenger etc…

 TCP/IP MODEL

• The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model is a framework

for designing and implementing network protocols.

• The TCP/IP model was designed and developed by Department of Defense (DOD) in
1960’s and is based on standard protocols.

• The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

• The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model

• It consists of four layers, each responsible for specific aspects of communication

over the internet.
They are:
1. Network Access Layer/ Link Layer
2. Internet Layer
3. Host-To-Host Layer/ Transport Layer
4. Application Layer/ Process Layer
Network Access / Link Layer :
• This layer correspondes to the combination of Data-link-layer and
physical layer in OSI model.

• A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

• It Looks out for hardware addressing and the protocols present in this
layer allows for the physical transmission of data.
Internet Layer :
• An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

• An internet layer is also known as the network layer.

• The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any
network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

• Main Protocol residing at this layer:

 IP (Internet Protocol)
 ICMP (Internet Control Messege Protocol)
 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
Host-To-Host Layer :
• This layer is similar to transport layer of OSI model.

• It is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free-delivery of data.

• The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol

Application Layer :
• An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

• This layer allows the user to interact with the application.

• This layer performs the functions of top 3 levels of OSI model. i.e. Application
layer, Presentation layer and session layer.
• It is responsible for node-to-node communication and controls user interface
specifications.

• Some important protocols in application layer are :

HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, TFTP, SSH,NFS, X Windows,

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) and TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) reference models are two primary frameworks used for
understanding and designing network protocols. Here’s a comparison of these models:

Comparison

Layering:

•OSI: Seven distinct layers.

•TCP/IP: Four layers, with some layers of the OSI model combined.
Guided Media :

• It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is
also known as Bounded media.

• Ensuring more controlled and reliable transmissions compared to unguided media

like radio waves.

• There 3 types of Guided Media. They are:

1. Twisted-Pair Cable
2. Coaxial Cable
3. Fiber-Optic Cable
Twisted-Pair Cable :
• Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other.
A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation
of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable.

• A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral
pattern. The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

• Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.
Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable :
• The most common twisted-pair cable used in telecommunications is referred to as
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP).
• It is cheap.
• Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
• It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable :

• Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) cable has a metal foil covering, that encases each pair
of insulated conductors. Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by
preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk.
• It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
• It has a higher attenuation rate.
Coaxial cable :
1. Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire
is usually a coaxial cable.

2. The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each
other.

3. It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.

4. The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer
conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-
conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.

5. The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper
mesh prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
Fibre Optic :

1. Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.

2. A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of
light.

3. The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.

4. Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
• An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using
any physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.

• Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways:
ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation.

Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:

1. Radio waves

2. Microwaves

3. Infrared
Radio Waves :
• Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the
directions of free space.
• Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the
directions.
• The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
• An example of the radio wave is FM radio
Microwaves :
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.
• Microwaves are unidirectional.
• The sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
• Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones,
satellite networks, and wireless LANs
Microwaves are of two types:
1.Terrestrial microwave
2.Satellite microwave communication.

Infrared :
• An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over
short ranges.
• The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
• It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two
cell phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell
phone resides in the same closed area