Fundamentals of

Computers
Computer

 The word computer comes from the word “compute”, which

means, “to calculate”.

 Thereby, a computer is an electronic device that can perform

arithmetic operations at high speed.

 A computer is also called a data processor because it can store,

process, and retrieve data whenever desired.
Data Processing

The activity of processing data using a computer is

called
data processing
Data
Capture Data

Manipulate Data

Output Results

Information
Data is raw material used as input and information is
processed data obtained as output of data processing
Characteristics of Computers

1) Automatic: Given a job, computer can work on it

automatically without human interventions

2) Speed: Computer can perform data processing jobs

very fast, usually measured in microseconds (10-6),
nanoseconds (10-9), and picoseconds (10-12)

3) Accuracy: Accuracy of a computer is consistently high

and the degree of its accuracy depends upon its design.
Computer errors caused due to incorrect input data or
unreliable programs are often referred to as Garbage-
In-Garbage-Out (GIGO)
 Characteristics of Computers
()

4) Diligence: Computer is free from monotony, tiredness,

and lack of concentration. It can continuously work for
hours without creating any error and without grumbling

5) Versatility: Computer is capable of performing almost

any task, if the task can be reduced to a finite series of
logical steps

6) Power of Remembering: Computer can store

recall any and
amount of information because of its
secondary storage capability. It forgets or looses certain
information only when it is asked to do so
(Continued from previous slide..)

7) No I.Q.: A computer does only what it is programmed

to do. It cannot take its own decision in this regard

8) No Feelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. Their

judgement is based on the instructions given to them in
the form of programs that are written by us (human
beings)
Evolution of Computers
 Charles Babbage is considered to be the
father of modern digital computers

 He designed “Difference Engine” in 1822

 He designed a fully automatic analytical engine in

1842 for performing basic arithmetic functions

 His efforts established a number of principles that

are fundamental to the design of any digital
computer
Computer Generations

 “Generation” in computer talk is a step in technology. It

provides a framework for the growth of computer industry

 Originally it was used to distinguish between various

hardware technologies, but now it has been extended to
include both hardware and software

 Till today, there are five computer generations

Computer Generations

Key hardware Key software Key Some

Generation
representative
(Period) technologies technologies characteristics
systems

First  Vacuum tubes  Machine and  Bulky in size  ENIAC

(1942-1955)  Electromagnetic assembly languages  Highly unreliable  EDVAC
relay memory  Stored program  Limited commercial  EDSAC
 Punched cards concept use and costly  UNIVAC I
secondary storage  Mostly scientific  Difficult commercial  IBM 701
applications production
 Difficult to use

Second (1955-  Transistors  Batch operating  Faster, smaller, more reliable  Honeywell 400
1964)  Magnetic cores system and easier to program than  IBM 7030
memory  High-level previous generation systems  CDC 1604
 Magnetic tapes programming  Commercial production was  UNIVAC LARC
 Disks for secondary languages still difficult and costly
storage  Scientific and
commercial
applications
 Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep.
(Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems

Third  ICs with SSI and MSI  Timesharing  Faster, smaller, more  IBM 360/370
(1964-1975) technologies operating reliable, easier and  PDP-8
 Larger magnetic system cheaper to produce  PDP-11
cores memory  Standardization of  Commercially, easier to
 CDC 6600
 Larger capacity high-level use, and easier to
disks and programming upgrade than previous
magnetic tapes languages generation systems
secondary storage  Unbundling of  Scientific, commercial and
 Minicomputers; software from interactive on- line
upward compatible hardware applications
family of computers
 Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep.
(Period) characteristic systems
Technologies technologies s
Fourth  ICs with  Operating systems for  Small, affordable,  IBM PC and
(1975-1989) VLSI technology PCs with GUI and reliable, and easy its clones
 Microprocessors; multiple windows on a to use PCs  Apple II
semiconductor memory single terminal screen  More powerful  TRS-80
 Larger capacity hard  Multiprocessing and  VAX 9000
disks as in-built OS with reliable
concurrent mainframe  CRAY-1
secondary storage  CRAY-2
programming systems
 Magnetic tapes and
languages and  CRAY-X/MP
floppy disks as portable
 UNIX operating system supercomputers
storage media
with C programming  Totally
 Personal computers
language general purpose
 Supercomputers based  Object-oriented design machines
on parallel and programming  Easier to produce
vector processing commercially
 PC, Network-based,
and symmetric
and supercomputing  Easier to upgrade
multiprocessing
applications  Rapid
technologies
software
 Spread of high- development
speed computer possible
networks
Generatio Key hardware Key software Key Some rep.
n technologies characteristic systems
(Period) technologies s
Fifth  ICs with ULSI  Micro-kernel based,  Portable computers  IBM notebooks
(1989- technology multithreading,  Powerful, cheaper,  Pentium PCs
Presen  Larger capacity distributed OS reliable, and easier  SUN
t) main memory,  Parallel to use desktop Workstations
hard disks with programming machines  IBM SP/2
RAID support libraries like MPI &  Powerful  SGI Origin
 Optical disks as PVM supercomputer 2000
portable read-only  JAVA s
 PARAM
storage media  World Wide Web  High uptime due to 10000
 Notebooks,  Multimedia, hot-pluggable
powerful Internet components
desktop PCs application  Totally
and s general purpose
workstations  More machines
 Powerful complex  Easier to
servers, supercomputing produce
supercomputers applications commercially,
 Internet easier to upgrade
 Cluster computing  Rapid
software
development
possible
Electronic Devices Used in Computers of Different
Generations

(a) A Vacuum Tube (b) A Transistor (c) An IC Chip

The Five Basic Operations of a Computer
System

 Inputting. The process of entering data and instructions into the

computer system

 Storing. Saving data and instructions to make them readily

available for initial or additional processing whenever required

 Processing. Performing arithmetic operations (add, subtract,

multiply, divide, etc.) or logical operations (comparisons like equal
to, less than, greater than, etc.) on data to convert them into useful
information
 Outputting. The process of producing useful information
or results for the user such as a printed report or visual
display

 Controlling. Directing the manner and sequence in which

all of the above operations are performed
Basic Organization of a Computer System

Storage Unit

Secondary
Storage

Program Information
Input Outpu
and Unit (Results)
t
Data Primary Unit

Storage

Control
Unit
Indicates flow of
instructions and
data
Arithmetic Indicates the
Logic control exercised by
Unit the control unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Arithmetic Logic Unit of a computer system is the place where the
actual executions of instructions takes place during processing operation

Control Unit (CU)

Control Unit of a computer system manages and coordinates the

operations of all other components of the computer system
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Arithmetic Central
Logic Unit + Control Unit = Processing
(ALU) (CU) Unit (CPU)

 It is the brain of a computer system

 It is responsible for controlling the operations of

all other units of a computer system
Storage Unit

The storage unit of a computer system holds (or stores) the

following :

1. Data and instructions required for processing (received from input

devices)
2. Intermediate results of processing
3. Final results of processing, before they are released to an output
device
Two Types of Storage

 Primary storage

 Used to hold running program instructions

 Used to hold data, intermediate results, and results
of ongoing processing of job(s)
 Fast in operation
 Small Capacity
 Expensive
 Volatile (looses data on power dissipation)
Two Types of Storage

 Secondary storage

 Used to hold stored program instructions

 Used to hold data and information of stored jobs
 Slower than primary storage
 Large Capacity
 Lot cheaper that primary storage
 Retains data even without power
 Storage
Devices
Limitations of Primary Storage

 Limited capacity because the cost per bit of storage

is high
 Volatile - data stored in it is lost when the electric
power is turned off or interrupted
Secondary Storage

 Used in a computer system to overcome the limitations of

primary storage
 Has virtually unlimited capacity because the cost per bit of
storage is very low
 Has an operating speed far slower than that of the
primary storage
 Used to store large volumes of data on a permanent basis
 Also known as auxiliary memory
Classification of Commonly Used
Secondary Storage Devices
Secondary Storage
Devices

Direct Access Devices

Sequential
Access
Device
Magnetic Tape

Optical Disks Memory

Magneti Storage
c Devices
Disks

Memory
Flopp CD-RW DVD Flash Card
Hard CD-ROM
y WORM
Disk (CD- Drive
Disks
R)

Zip Disk
Disk Pack Winchester Disk
Input Devices
An input device is used to feed data into a computer. It is also defined as
a device that provides communication between the user and the
computer.
• Some Input Devices are:
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Light Pen
• Touch Screen
• Scanner
• Graphic Tablet
• Touch Pad
• Joystick
• Microphone
• Digital Camera
• Webcam
• CCTV
• Card Reader
• Biometric Scanner
 Output Devices
It is an electromechanical device that accepts data from computer and
translates them into a form suitable for use by outside world.

• Monitor
• Printers
• Plotters
• Projectors
• Speakers
• Headphones
Software

The software acts as an interface between the user and the

computer or a software can be defined as a complete set of
instructions written by the programmer which enables the
computer to obtain the solution to a problem.

Software is the means by which computer systems speak

with computer users. Software forms the heart of computer
systems
Software
Types
• System Software
It helps in running the computer hardware and the computer
system. System software is a collection of system programs;
device drivers, servers, windowing systems and utilities. System
software helps an application programmer in abstracting away
from hardware, memory and other internal complexities of a
computer.

• Application Software
It enables the end users to accomplish certain specific tasks.
Business software, databases and educational software are some
forms of application software. Different word processors, which
are dedicated for specialized tasks to be performed by the user.
Operating System
“Operating System (OS) is a collection of software written to
provide the fundamental instructions that a computer needs to
manage resources, such as memory, the file system, and
processes”.
In other words, OS is a master program that controls a
computer's basic functions and allows other programs to access
the computer's resources such as disk drive, printer, keyboard,
and screen.
Examples of operating systems: Linux, Windows, UNIX, DOS and
Mac Os.
Basic Roles of Operating System

a) Easy interaction between human and computer.

b) Starting computer operation automatically.
c) Loading and scheduling users’ programs/processes.
d) Controlling I/O devices
e) Managing various types of memories such as primary,
secondary, cache etc.
f) Providing security to users’ jobs and files.
g) Accounting hardware resources and handling network
communication.
h) Allowing users to share data and software among
themselves.
i) Preventing the system from unauthorized user,
programs etc.
 Classification of
Computers
Analog Computer
An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of computer that
uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to
model the problem being solved.

Digital Computer
A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as
digits, usually in the binary number system

Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)

A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital and
analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost effective method of performing
complex simulations.
Super Computer

The fastest and most powerful type of computer Supercomputers are very expensive and are
employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations.
For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers
include animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum
exploration.
The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels
all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its
power to execute many programs concurrently.

Mainframe Computer
A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users
simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches, for example)
at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below
supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because
they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program
faster than a mainframe.
Mini Computer
A mid sized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie
between workstations and mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between large
minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between
small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing
system capable of supporting from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously.

Micro Computer or Personal Computer

• Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk.
• Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and keyboard.
It is generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than a notebook computer.
• Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer. Palmtops
have no keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output device.

Workstations
A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context, workstation is just a generic
term for a user’s machine (client machine) in contrast to a “server” or “mainframe.”