Lecture- Contents

1. Introduction to Laser
2. Quantum Process
3. Relationship between Einstein's
coefficients
4. Components of Laser

1
 LASER System

LASER stands for Light amplification by stimulated emission of

radiation. Laser is a device which emits a powerful, monochromatic
collimated beam of light. The emitted light waves are coherent in
nature.
Characteristics of Laser Light
1. Directionality

Ordinary light spreads in all directions and its angular spread is

1m/m. But it is found that laser is highly directional and is angular
spread is 1mm/m. For example, the laser beam can be focused to very
long distance with a few divergence or angular spread.
Divergence or angular spread is given by
Where d1 , d2 are any two distances for the laser source emitted and

r1, r2 are the radii of the beam spots at a distance d1, and d2
respectively as shown
2. Intensity:
Since an ordinary light spreads in all directions, the intensity
reaching the target is very less. But in the case of laser, due to high
directionality, the intensity of laser beam reaching the target is of
high intense beam. For example, 1 mill watt power of He-Ne laser
appears to be brighter than the sunlight.
3. Monochromatic:
Laser beam is highly monochromatic; the wavelength is
single, whereas in ordinary light like mercury vapour lamp, many
wavelengths of light are emitted.
4 Coherence:
It is an important characteristic of laser beam. In lasers the wave
trains of same frequency are in phase, the radiation given out is in
mutual agreement not only in phase but also in the direction of
emission and polarization. Thus it is a coherent beam. Due to high
coherence it results in an extremely high power.
Principle of Spontaneous and Stimulated emission – Einstein’s
Quantum theory of radiation (Quantum Process)
We know that, when light is absorbed by the atoms or molecules,
then it goes from the lower energy level (E1) to the higher energy

level (E2) and during the transition from higher energy level (E2) to

lower energy level (E1) the light is emitted from the atoms.
Let us consider an atom exposed to light photons of energy E2 -E1= hv ,
three distinct processes take place.
a. Absorption
b. Spontaneous emission
c. Stimulated Emission
Absorption:
An atom in the lower energy level or ground state energy level
E1 absorbs the incident photon radiation of energy hv and goes to the

higher energy level or excited level E2 as shown in figure.

This process is called absorption
If there are many numbers of atoms in the ground state then
each atom will absorb the energy from the incident photon and goes
to the excited state. then,
The rate of absorption (R12) is proportional to the following
factors.
According to Bohr’s law atomic system is characterized by discrete
energy level.
When atoms absorb or release energy it transit upward or downward.
Lower level E1 & Excited level E2

So, hν = E2 – E1

The rate of absorption depends on no. of atoms N1 present in E1 &

spectral energy density u(ν) of radiation
Therefore, R12 α N1 u(ν)

R12= B12N1 u(ν)

Where B12 is a constant (Einstein's absorption coefficient) which
gives the probability of absorption of absorption transition per unit
time.
Normally, the atoms in the excited state will not stay there for a long
period of time , rather it comes to ground state by emitting a photon of
energy E=hν Such an emission takes place by one of the following two
methods.
Spontaneous Emission

An atom in excited state

remains for 10-8 sec. It then,
of its own accord, jumps to
lower energy state emitting
a radiation. This process is
called spontaneous
emission of radiation.
 Such an emission is random and is independent of incident radiation.
If N1 and N2 are the numbers of atoms in the ground state (E1) and

excited state (E2) respectively

The probability of spontaneous emission E2 → E1 depend only on the

properties of states E1 and E2, and the number of the atoms in excited

states i.e., N2.

R21 (spont) N2

R21 (spont) = A21 N2

A2 1is called Einstein’s coefficient for spontaneous emission of radiation

Stimulated (Induced) Emission

The atom in the excited state can also return to the ground state by
external triggering or inducement of photon thereby emitting a photon
of energy equal to the energy of the incident photon, known as
stimulated emission. Thus results in two photons of same energy,
phase difference and of same directionality as shown.
The probability of stimulated emission depends on the energy density
of incident radiation, number of atoms in the excited state i.e., N 2 as

well as on the properties of state E1 and E2.

R21(Stim) N2 u(υ)

R21(Stim) = B21 N2 u(υ)

Where B21 is a constant (Einstein coefficient for Stimulated

Emission) which gives the probability of stimulated emission
transitions per unit time.
Thus total probability of emission of radiation is

R21 = R21 (spont)+ R21(Stim)= A21 N2+ B21 N2 u(υ)

 Relation between Einstein’s ‘A’ and ‘B’ coefficients (Einstein’s theory)
Under thermal equilibrium The rate of absorption = The rate of emission

R12 = R21

N1 B12 u(v) =
N2 [A21 + B21 u(v)]
𝑢 ( 𝜈 ) [ 𝐵12 𝑁 1 − 𝐵21 𝑁 2 ] = 𝐴 21 𝑁 2

𝐴 21 𝑁 2
𝑢 (𝜈)=
[ 𝐵12 𝑁 1 − 𝐵21 𝑁 2 ]

𝐴 21 1
𝑢 (𝜈)= … … ..(1)
𝐵21
[ 𝐵12 𝑁 1
.
𝐵21 𝑁 2
−1
]
According to Boltzmann distribution law number of
atoms N1 and N2 in energy states E1 and E2 in thermal equilibrium at
temperature T are given by
− 𝐸1
𝑁1 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
= −𝐸
𝑁2 2

𝑒 𝑘𝑇

−( 𝐸 1− 𝐸 2)
𝑁1 𝑘𝑇
=𝑒
𝑁2
( 𝐸2 − 𝐸 1 )
𝑁1 𝑘𝑇
=𝑒
𝑁2
( ∵ 𝐸 2 − 𝐸1= h𝜈 )

h𝜈
𝑁1
∴ =𝑒 𝑘𝑇 … … ..(2)
𝑁2
 Substituting N1/N2 in Eq (1), we get
𝐴 21 1
𝑢 (𝜈)= … …..( 3)
𝐵21
[ ]
h𝜈
𝐵12 𝑘𝑇
.𝑒 −1
𝐵21
Comparing it with Plank’s Radiation law
3
8 𝜋 h 𝜈 1
𝑢 (𝜈)= … …..( 4 )
[𝑒 ]
3 h𝜈
𝑐 𝑘𝑇
−1
W
e get 𝐵12
1. = 1;B12 = B21, The probability of stimulated emission is
𝐵21
same as that of induced absorption. This means that if
these two processes will occur at equal rates, so that no
population inversion can be attained in a two-level
system.
 𝐴21 8 𝜋 h𝜈 3
(2) =
𝐵21 𝑐
3

The ratio of spontaneous emission and stimulated emission is

proportional to v3. This implies that the probability of spontaneous
emission dominates over induced emission more and more as the
energy difference between the two states increases.
Ratio of magnitudes of Stimulated to Spontaneous emission rates

From rate equations of spontaneous and stimulated emission, we have

𝑅21(𝑆𝑡 ) 𝐵21 𝑢(𝜈) 𝑁 2
=
𝑅21(𝑆𝑝 ) 𝐴21 𝑁 2

𝑅21 𝐵21 𝑢(𝜈)

= … … … .(1)
𝑅12 𝐴21
Rearranging equation (3) , we have
𝐵21 1
𝑢 ( 𝜈 )=
𝐴 21
[ ]
h𝜈
𝐵12 𝑘𝑇
.𝑒 −1
𝐵21
Since B12=B21, then we have
𝐵21 1
𝑢 ( 𝜈 )= … … ..(2)
𝐴 21
[𝑒 ]
h𝜈
𝑘𝑇
−1
Comparing equation 1 and 2, we have
𝐵21 1 𝑅 21( 𝑆𝑡)
𝑢 ( 𝜈 )= h 𝜈 =
𝐴 21 𝑘𝑇
𝑒 −1[ 𝑅 21( 𝑆𝑝)
]
Generally Spontaneous emission is more predominant in the optical
region (Ordinary light). To increase the number of coherent photons
stimulated emission should dominate over spontaneous emission. To achieve
this, an artificial condition called Population Inversion is necessary.
Population Inversion:
Population Inversion creates a situation in which the number of atoms
in higher energy state is more than that in the lower energy state.

Usually at thermal equilibrium, the number of atoms N2 i.e., the

population of atoms at higher energy state is much lesser than the
population of the atoms at lower energy state N1 that is N1 > N2 .
 The Phenomenon of making N2 > N1 is known as Population
Inversion.

Conditions of Population inversion.

 There must be at least two energy levels E2 > E1.

 There must be a source to supply the energy to the medium.
 The atoms must be continuously raised to the excited state.
Pumping Schemes
Two Level Pumping System
In a simple two-level system, it is not possible to obtain a population
inversion with optical pumping because the rate of absorption
becomes equal to rate of emission.
Three Level Pumping Scheme
Laser action can be achieved achieving population inversion between two
levels of energy E1 and E2 with E2>E1, so that more atoms are in the level 2
than in the level 1.
“Pumping" is done to achieve the condition of inversion. In the three-level
lasers. The three levels in an atom such that E 3>E2>E1 , Incident radiation
frequency v is used to raise atoms from the level 1(ground state) to level
3(excited state) .
Atom at level 3 decays rapidly to level 2(metastable state) through a
non-radiative transition, hence population inversion is obtained
between levels 2 and 1. A chance spontaneous emission will result in
stimulated emission and laser action is achieved between level
Four Level Pumping Scheme
It is difficult to produce a continuous beam of laser in 3 level pumping
scheme as at a time either pumping or laser action exists. An easier
approach is to use a four-level system and population inversion is
achieved between two excited levels. We start with all the atoms in the
ground state1, and none in the excited states 2,3 and 4 (E2<E3<E4) .
atom are pumped from level 1 to Level 4(excited state) from there
they fast decay to level 3(metastable state) through a non-radiative
transition, and population inversion is achieved between levels 3 and
2. A chance spontaneous emission will result in stimulated emission
and laser action is achieved between level 3 and 2. level 2 is chosen so
that it has a fast decay to the ground state.
Meta stable States
An atom can be excited to a higher level by supplying energy to it. Normally,
excited atoms have short life times and release their energy in a matter of
nano seconds (10-9) through spontaneous emission. It means atoms do not
stay long to be stimulated. As a result, they undergo spontaneous emission
and rapidly return to the ground level; thereby population inversion could
not be established. In order to do so, the excited atoms are required
to ‘wait’ at the upper energy level till a large number of atoms accumulate at
that level. In other words, it is necessary that excited state have a longer
lifetime. Atoms excited to the metastable states remain excited for an
appreciable time, which is of the order of 10 -6 to 10-3s. This is 103 to 106 times
the lifetimes of the ordinary energy levels.
Such a state, which single-photon emission is impossible, has an
unusually long time and is called a metastable state. Therefore, the
metastable state allows accumulation of a large number of excited
atoms at that level. The metastable state population can exceed the
population at a lower level and establish the condition of
population inversion in the lasing medium. It would be impossible
to create the state of population inversion without a metastable
state.
Components and Principle of Laser action
Principle: Due to stimulated emission the photons multiply in each
step-giving rise to an intense beam of photons that are coherent and
moving in the same direction. Hence the light is amplified by
Stimulated Emission of the Radiation. Termed LASER.

Components of Lasers
Active Medium:
A medium in which population inversion can be achieved is known
as active medium.
Active Center:

The material in which the atoms are raised to the excited state to
achieve Population Inversion is called Active Center.
Energy Source (Excitation Mechanism):

Energy Source (Excitation mechanisms) pumps the active centers

from ground state to excited state to achieve population inversion.
The pumping by energy source can be optical, electrical or
chemical depending on the active medium.
 Pumping action.
It is essential requirement for producing a laser beam.
Methods of pumping action:
1. Optical pumping (Excitation by Photons)
2. Electrical discharge method (Excitation by
electrons)
3. Direct conversion
4. In elastic atom – atom collision between atoms
Optical pumping:
When the atoms are exposed to light radiations energy hv , atoms in the
lower energy state absorb these radiations and they go to the excited state.
This method is called Optical pumping. It is used in solid state lasers like
ruby laser. In ruby laser, xenon flash lamp is used as pumping source.
Electrical discharge method (Excitation by electrons)
In this method, the electrons are produced in an electrical discharge tube.
These electrons are accelerated to high velocities by a strong electrical
field. These accelerated electrons collide with the gas atoms. By the
process, energy from the electrons is transferred to gas atoms. Some atoms
gain energy and they go to the excited state. This results in population
inversion. This method is called Electrical discharge method.
It is represented by the equation
A + e* = A* + e
Where A →gas atom in the ground state, A*→same gas
atom in the excited state e* →Electrons with higher Kinetic energy and e
→ Same electron with lesser energy.
This method of pumping is used in gas lasers like argon
 Direct Conversion
In this method, due to electrical energy applied in direct band gap
semiconductor like Ga As, recombination of electrons and holes takes place.
During the recombination process, the electrical energy is directly is
converted into light energy.
In elastic atom – atom collision

In this method, a combination of two gases (Say A and B are used).

The excited states of A and B nearly coincides in energy.
In the first step during the electrical discharge atoms of gas A are
excited to their higher energy state A* (metastable state) due to
collision with the electrons .
A + e* = A* + e
Now A* atoms at higher energy state collide with B atoms in the lower
state. Due to inelastic atom - atom collision B atoms gain energy and
they are excited to a higher state B* . Hence, A atoms lose energy and
return to lower state.
A* + B = A + B*
Optical resonator
An optical resonator consists of a pair of reflecting surfaces in which
one is fully reflecting (R1) and the other is partially reflecting (R2).
The active material is placed in between these two reflecting surfaces.
The photons generated due to transitions between the energy states of
active material are bounced back and forth between two reflecting
surfaces.
Flow Chart of Laser action
Helium Neon Laser

He-Ne stands for Helium-Neon. The He-Ne laser active medium

consists of two gases which do not interact form a molecule.
Therefore He-Ne laser is one type of atomic gas lasers.

In Helium Neon Laser

1. Active Medium (gas): A mixture of helium and neon gas (10:1)

2. Resonant Cavity: The reflectors (plane or concave )R 1 and R2

placed outside the tube.
3. Pumping Mechanism: Electric discharge method
Principle:

This laser is based on the principle of stimulated emission, produced

in the active medium of gas. Here, the population inversion achieved
due to the interaction between the two gases which have closer
higher energy levels.
Construction of He-Ne Lasers
The gas laser consists of a fused quartz tube with small diameter. This
tube filled with a mixture of neon (Ne) gas under a pressure of 0.1mm
of mercury and helium (He) gas under a pressure of 1 mm of mercury.
There is majority of helium atoms and minority of neon atoms.
In this method, two gases Helium & Neon were mixed in the ratio 10:1
in a discharge tube .
The end faces of the discharge tube are inclined at the polarizing angle
so that laser light is plane polarized. Such arrangement is known as
Brewster window.
At one end of the tube , there is a perfect reflector (100%) while other
end is a partial reflector (<100%). These reflecting surfaces form an
optical resonator.
The active material is excited by means of a high frequency generator
(R.F Generator) with a frequency of several tens of MHz and an input
of about 50 watt.
Working:
 When the electric discharge (fast moving electrons) is passing
through the gas mixture, the electrons collide with the He gas atoms
excites into higher levels F2 and F3 form F1 by absorbing the
electrons energy.
 In He atoms higher levels F2 and F3, the life time of He atoms is
more.
 Since F2 and F3 states are acting as metastable states, so the He
atom cannot return to ground level through spontaneous emission.
 So there is a maximum possibility of energy transfer between He
and Ne atoms through atomic collisions.
 When He atoms present in the levels F2 and F3 collide with Ne atoms

present ground state E1, the Ne atoms gets excitation into higher

levels E4 and E6.

 Due to the continuous excitation of Ne atoms, we can achieve the

population inversion between the higher levels E4 (E6) and lower

levels E3 (E5).
 The various transitions and leads to the emission of wavelengths
3.39μm,1.15μm and 6328Å
 The first two corresponding to the infrared region while the last
wavelength is corresponding to the visible region.
 The Ne atoms present in the E3 level are de-excited into E2 level, by

spontaneously emitting a photon of around wavelength 6000Å.

 When a narrow discharge tube is used, the Ne atoms present in the

level E2 collide with the walls of the tube and get de-excited to

ground level E1.

 The excitation and de-excitation of He and Ne atoms is a continuous
process and thus it gives continuous laser radiations.
Characteristics of He-Ne Laser
 Type: It is four energy levels (3 in Ne and 1 in He) laser.

 Active Medium: It uses a mixture of helium and neon gases as the

active medium
 Pumping Method: Electric discharge method is used for pumping
action, i.e. for achieving population inversion.
 Optical Resonator: A pair of plane mirrorsfacing each other is
used as optical resonator.
 Frequency Output: The frequency of output beams is about
4.7×1014 Hz.
 Wavelength Output: The wavelength of laser output is 6823Å

 Nature of Output: The nature of output is continuous wave.

 Power Output: The power output of laser beam is 0.5-50

milliwatts.
Advantages of He-Ne Laser

 He-Ne laser has very good coherence property

 He-Ne laser can produce three wavelengths that are 1.152µm,

3.391 µm and 632.8nm, in which the 632.8nm is most common
because it is visible usually in red color.
 He-Ne laser tube has very small length approximately from 10
to 100cm and best life time of 20.000 hours.
 Cost of He-Ne laser is less from most of other lasers.

 Construction of He-Ne laser is also not very complex.

 He-Ne laser provide inherent safety due to low power output.

Disadvantages of He-Ne Laser

 It is relatively low power device means its output power is low.

 He-Ne laser is low gain system/ device.

 To obtain single wavelength laser light, the other two

wavelengths of laser need suppression, which is done by many
techniques and devices. So it requires extra technical skill and
increases the cast also.
 High voltage requirement can be considered its disadvantage.

 Escaping of gas from laser plasma tube is also its

disadvantage.
Applications / Uses of He-Ne Laser
 He-Ne lasers are produced in large quantities from many
years.
 Many schools / colleges / universities use this type of laser in
their science programs and experiments.
 He-Ne lasers also used in super market checkout counters to
read bar codes and QR codes.
 The He-Ne lasers also used by newspapers for reproducing
transmitted photographs.
 He-Ne lasers can be use as an alignment tool.

 It is also used in Guns for targeting.

Applications of Laser in Engineering:

 Welding and Cutting: The highly collimated beam of a laser can be focused to a
microscopic dot of extremely high energy density for welding and cutting. The
automobile industry makes extensive use of carbon dioxide lasers with powers up
to several kilowatts for computer controlled welding on auto assembly lines.
 Communication: The lasers have significant advantages in communication
because they are more nearly monochromatic and this allows the pulse shape to
be maintained better over long distances when used in optical fiber.
 Barcode Scanner: Supermarket scanners typically use helium-neon lasers to
scan the universal barcodes to identify products. The laser beam bounces off a
rotating mirror and scans the code, sending a modulated beam to a light detector
and then to a computer which has the product information stored.
 Laser Printing: The laser printer has in a few years become the dominant
mode of printing in offices. The laser is focused and scanned across a
photoactive selenium coated drum where it produces a charge pattern which
mirrors the material to be printed. This drum then holds the particles of the
toner to transfer to paper which is rolled over the drum in the presence of heat.

 CD’s and Optical Discs: The detection of the binary data stored in the form of
pits on the compact disc is done with the use of a semiconductor laser.
 Surveying and Ranging: Helium-neon and semiconductor lasers have become
standard parts of the field surveyor's equipment. A fast laser pulse is sent to a
corner reflector at the point to be measured and the time of reflection is
measured to get the distance.
 Laser cooling: The use of lasers to achieve extremely low temperatures has
advanced to the point that temperatures of 10-9 K have been reached
 Laser Spectroscopy: Laser spectroscopy has led to advances in the precision
with which spectral line frequencies can be measured, and this has fundamental
significance for our understanding of basic atomic processes.
 Holography: Holography is "lens less photography" in which an image is
captured not as an image focused on film, but as an interference pattern at the
film.

Medical applications
 In medicine, micro surgery has become possible due to narrow angular
spread of the laser beam.
 It can be used in the treatment of kidney stone, tumour, in cutting and
sealing the small blood vessels in brain surgery and retina detachment.
 The laser beams are used in endoscopy.
 It can also be used for the treatment of human and animal cancer.
Application in Science
 Since the laser beam can stay on at a single frequency, it can be modulated to

transmit large number of messages at a time in radio, television and telephone.

 The semiconductor laser is the best light source for optical fiber communication.
 Narrow angular spread of the laser beam makes it a very useful tool for
microwave communication. Communication with earth satellites and in rocketry.
 Laser is also used in accurate range finders for detecting the targets.
 The earth-moon distance has been measured with the help of lasers.
 It is used in laser Raman Spectroscopy.
 Laser beam can determine precisely the distance, velocity and direction as well
as the size and form of the objects by means of the reflected signal as in radar.
Rest of the Things……………..

49