Introduction to research

methodology

For

By: Aman Beyene (MPH)

2022

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 CAHPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

WHAT IS A RESEARCH?
Definition:
•Research is a scientific inquiry aimed at
learning new facts, testing ideas, etc.
•It is the systematic collection, analysis and
interpretation of data to generate new knowledge
and answer a certain question or solve a problem .
•Research is an approach to obtain a solution for a
specific problem. 2
 What is Health Research?
• Health research is the process of obtaining systematic
knowledge and technology which can be used for the
improvement of the health of individual or groups.

• It provides the basic information on the state of health

and diseases of the population.
• It aims to develop tools to prevent and cure illness and
mitigate its effects.
• It attempts to develop better approaches to health
care.
• Over all, Health Research is a systematic collection,
analysis and interpretation of data to solve a health
problem.
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 Why do we do a Research?
A research is done in order:
 To address gaps in knowledge
 To expand knowledge
 To improve practice through new ideas into
methods
 To make more informed choices/decisions
based on available information
 To create data-base for policy-making through
understanding factors affecting desired
outcomes
 It helps to build skills (organizational, analytical,
writing, presentation, time management, etc.)4
 Purpose of Health Research

• To generate knowledge essential to effectively

promote the health of the population.

• Without that knowledge, effective action is

impossible because it has no logical or empirical
basis.

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 Types of health research

Major categories of research include:

A. Basic vs Applied
Research based on its functions and its application

B. Quantitative Vs Qualitative (Empirical Vs

Theoretical)

Research based on the philosophical approach

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 i. Basic Research
• It is necessary to generate new knowledge
and technologies to deal with major
unresolved health problems.
• Basic research (also called fundamental or
pure research) has its primary objective in
the advancement of knowledge and the
theoretical understanding of the relations
among variables

• Basic research provides the foundation for

further, sometimes applied research. 7
 ii. Applied Research
• It is necessary to identify priority problems and to
design and evaluate policies and programs that will
deliver the greatest health benefit, making optimal
use of available resources.
• Is original work undertaken in order to acquire new
knowledge with a specific application in view.

• Is a research that seeks to solve practical problems

• It is a problem-oriented, and is directed towards the

solution of an existing problem in a population

• Epidemiological, health service and health

policy related researches are categorized here.
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 Quantitative Vs Qualitative
research
i. Quantitative (Empirical research)
•Early forms of research originated in the
natural sciences such as biology, chemistry,
physics, geology etc. and was concerned with
investigating things which we could observe
and measure in some way.
•Such observations and measurements can be
made objectively and repeated by other
researchers.
•This process is referred to as quantitative
research.
Quantitative (Empirical) research…cont

Typically answers the questions including:

– WHAT, (What problems affect the public? What are
the cause etc)
– WHO, (Who are more affected, person component)
– WHEN (When is more occurring; seasonality, long
term trend etc)
– HOW FREQUENTLY (How much is the frequency,
prevalence, incidence)
– It is done through quantifying health related
problems

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 Cont…
• Quantification in empirical research is
achieved by 3 related numerical procedures:
1.Measurement of variables (scaling);

2. Estimation of population parameters

(parameters of the probability distribution that
captures the variability of observations in the
population);

3. Statistical testing of hypotheses, or estimating

the extent to which the role of ‘chance’ is assessed

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 ii. Qualitative (Theoretical)
research
• Researchers working in the social sciences
such as psychology, sociology, anthropology
etc. were interested in studying human
behavior and the social world inhabited by
human beings.
• It is difficult to explain human behavior in
simply measurable terms.
• Research which attempts to increase our
understanding of why things are in the way
they are in our social world and why people
act the ways they do is qualitative research.
 Qualitative research … cont
It usually deals with responding to questions of
– HOW (non-countable reasoning of mechanism of
change)

– WHY (in sighted cause reasons)

– It is used when phenomena is difficult to quantify

using simple numbering

•It provide insights into people’s

• Lifestyle, Behavior,
• Knowledge, Feelings and attitudes
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• Opinions and values Experience
 Reading Assignment
• What are the different types of study
designs?
• What are the advantages and limitations of
each design?
 CHAPTER TWO

IDENTIFYING AND PRIORITISING

TOPICS FOR RESEARCH

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 Topic selection
What is a problem?
A problem is a gap or a difference between what is
expected or desired to be and the actual
condition exists.

• A problem is a perceived difficulty, a feeling of

discomfort about the way things are or
discrepancy between what some one believes
should the situation be and what the situation is
in reality

• While problems are initiating forces behind

research, not all problems require research 16
 Topic selection…
A potential research situation arises when three
conditions exist

 A perceived discrepancy exists between what is

& what should be.

 A question exists about why there is a

discrepancy.

 At least two possible & plausible answers exist to

the question why?

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Topic selection

 The research topic or title should be specific

and clear.

 The topic should indicate WHO/WHAT, WHEN,

WHY, WHERE and HOW clearly.

 It is the focus of your research work.

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 Problem situation
Example
• In district “ Y “ a report showed that in the
first month there were 500 children under
one year old who started immunization, but
at the end of the year it was found out that
there were only 25 children who completed
their vaccination.

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• Discrepancy: All the 500 children at district “Y
“should have completed their vaccination but only
5% out of those who started vaccination have
completed.

• Problem (research) question: why only 5% of

the children completed their vaccination?
Definite answer: Out of the 1 hospital, 2 health
centers and 10 health stations found in district
“Y” only 2 health stations were functioning, the
rest were closed due to insecurity in the area.

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 Criteria for selecting a research topic
There are seven criterias for selecting research topic
1.Relevance
2.Avoidance of duplication
3.Urgency of data needed (timeliness)
4.Political acceptability of study
5.Feasibility of study
6.Applicability of results
7.Ethical acceptability

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 Relevance
The topic you choose should be a priority
problem.

How large or widespread is the problem?

Who is affected?
How severe is the problem?

• Try to think of serious health problems that affect a great

number of people or of the most serious problems that are
faced by managers in the area of your work.

• All the community members and local managers have an

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interest in solving it.
 Avoidance of duplication
• Before you decide to carry out a study, it is important that
you find out whether the suggested topic has been
investigated before, either within the proposed study area
or in another area with similar conditions.
• If the topic has been researched, the results should be
reviewed to explore whether major questions that deserve
further investigation remain unanswered. If not, another
topic should be chosen.
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 Urgency of data needed (timeliness)

• How urgently are the results needed for making a decision or

developing interventions at various levels (from community to
policy)?

• Consider which research should be done first and which can

be done later.

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 Political acceptability

In general it is advisable to research a topic that has the interest

and support of the local/national authorities.

• This will increase the chance that the results of the study will be
implemented.

Under certain circumstances, however, you may feel that a study

is required to show that the government’s policy needs
adjustment.

If so, you should make an extra effort to involve the policy-
makers concerned at an early stage, in order to limit the chances
for confrontation later.
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 Feasibility
• Look at the project you are proposing and consider the
complexity of the problem and the resources you will
require carrying out your study.

• Thought should be given first to manpower, time,

equipment and money that are locally available.

• Finally, explore the possibility of obtaining technical and

financial assistance from external sources.

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 Applicability of possible results/recommendations

• Is it likely that the recommendations from the study will be

applied?

• This will depend on management capability, willingness of the

authorities and availability of resources for implementing the
recommendations.

• Likewise, the opinion of the potential clients and of

responsible staff will influence the implementation of
recommendations.

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 Ethical acceptability
• We should always consider the possibility that we may inflict harm on
others while carrying out research. Review the following
 How acceptable is the research to those who will be studied?

 Can informed consent be obtained from the research subjects?

 Will the condition of the subjects be taken into account? For

example, if individuals are identified during the study who require
treatment, will this treatment be given? What if such treatment
interferes with your study results?
 Will the results be shared with those who are being studied? Will
the results be helpful in improving the lives or health of those
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Rating scale: 1=low, 2=medium, 3=high
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 PLANNING RESEARCH

Developing proposal
A written proposal is important:

1. To clearly define the problem under study

2. To avoid re- inventing the wheel
3. To clearly depict the methodology to be used
4. To be cost and time conscious
5. To be clear about what to expect at the end

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 Components of Research Proposal

Title pages
 Title page 1
 Title page 2
Acknowledgements: 100 words
Proposal summary
Table of contents
List of tables
List of figures
Acronyms

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 Cont’d
1) Introduction
1.1) Background
1.2) Statement of the Problem
1.3) Significance of the study
2) Literature review
3)Objectives
4) Methods
5) Work plan
6) Cost of the Project/Budget
7) References
8) Annexes
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 Research proposal submission
SUMMARY
form…
(ONLY ONE PAGE)

(Summary must be structured under the following heading: Introduction,

objectives, methods, work plan and budget. Do not exceed 350 words).

INTROCUCTION
This section can be divided in to 3 subsections: Background, Statement of
the problem and justification of the proposed study.

Statement of the problem

(Only one page)

Literature Review
(Maximum four pages)

Justification of the proposed study

(Maximum half page)
Literature review
(Maximum 5 pages) 33
 Research proposal submission
form…
OBJECTOVES
(only one page, Maximum)
General objective:
Specific objectives:

METHODS
(Maximum four pages)
• Study design
• Study area
• Study population
• Sample size & sampling procedures
• Variables of the study
• Operational definitions
• Data collection procedures (instrument, personnel, data quality control)
• Data processing and analysis

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 Research proposal submission
form…
ETHICAL CONSIDERATION
(Half-One page)
DISSEMINATION OF RESULTS
(Maximum half page)

WORK PLAN
(Only one page)
(Describe briefly the expected accomplishments of
the project by phase, and the estimated time for
each). 35
 Research proposal …
 COST OF THE PROJECT
(Maximum two pages)
Give an itemized list of the direct costs of the
project.

 References
(Use Vancouver Style)

 Annexes
Dummy tables
Questionnaire
(Others as necessary)

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 A. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM/INTRODUCTION
1. Concise description of the nature of the problem:
- What is it?
- Magnitude
- Distribution (who, where, when)
- Severity and consequences
2. Systematically elucidate why the proposed research should
be undertaken:
- Brief description of any attempts to solve the problem in
the past-successes, failures and challenges.
- Provide convincing argument that available knowledge is
insufficient to solve the problem under study.
3. Describe the significance of the proposed study:
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-what do you hope to achieve with the study results?
 B. LITERATURE REVIEW

• Search widely:
- Library
- Electronic search engines
- Grey literature

• Evaluate the relevance of the literature to your study

• Include information directly relevant to your study
• Be concise

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 LITERATURE REVIEW...

• Include:
- Detailed account of the subject matter you want to research
- Entertain confounding factors and other related matter only
pertaining to the current research
- Avoid repetitions and lengthy statements

(Maximum 5-7 pages)

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 LITERATURE REVIEW...

• Avoid reinventing the wheel/avoidance of

duplicating previous work
• Learn the gaps
• Learn the various methods used

=> An opportunity to develop professional

confidence in the field of study!!!

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 C. OBJECTIVES

• General objective:
- Summarizes what is to be achieved by the study

- Should be clearly related to the statement of the problem

• Specific objectives:

- Logically connected parts of the general objective

- Focus the study on the essentials

- Direct the design of the investigation

- Orient collection, analysis and interpretation of the data

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CRITERIA FOR SETTING RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

1. Focused- each covering a single point

2. Ordered- in logical sequence
3. Realistic- and feasible to answer
4. Operational- using action verbs such as:
- Determine - Verify - Identify
- Describe - Assess - Compare
- Calculate - establish - Explore
5. Measurable- outcomes at the end of the research

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 D. METHODOLOGY
• What is the choice of the study design?

• What would be the study population?

• What would be the required size of the study subjects?

• How would the study subjects selected/sampled?

• Data collection: What, How, Who, Where, When?

• Data analysis-Coding, entering, cleaning, storing, recording,

choice of statistical methods
• Operational definitions of crucial concepts
• Selection and training of field workers/research staff
• Field testing of the research methods and tools 43

• Supervision and quality control

 E. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

• Professional obligation to safeguard the safety of study

subjects

• Refer to national and international guidelines

• Describe potential ethical concerns and mechanisms to

minimize harms and maximize benefits

• Every research can potentially cause ethical concerns!!!

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 F. DISSEMINATION AND UTILIZATION OF RESULTS
• Briefly describe the dissemination plan

- Feedback to the community

- Feedback to local communities

- Identify relevant authorities that need to be informed

- Scientific publication

- Presentation in meetings/conferences
• Briefly describe how the study results can be best
translated into application.
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 G. BUDGET- COST OF THE PROJECT

• Clearly identify the resource requirements

• Be realistic in costing/budgeting

• The work-plan is a good starting point for preparing budget

for activities
• Prepare budget justification

• Include 5-10% contingency

• Identify funding resources & prepare budget according to

the required format.
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 Reference
• Two ways of reference in Biomedical literature.

1. Harvard method

2. Vancouver

Harvard- cited by giving in parentheses the name of

the author and the year of publication.

The Vancouver system: Most biomedical journals

follow this system. References should be numbered
consecutively in the order in which they are first
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mentioned in the text.
 Group Assignment
1. Writing Research Proposal
 Please be 5 members in a group

 Visit local health offices and facilities and conduct a simple

assessment on major health and health related problems of the
area
 Select research topics in group with justification and submit at
least three research topics and one will be selected
 Then, each group will develop a simple research proposal

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