WEST END UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF NURSING

Course Code: NUS 112

Course Title: Human Anatomy II

Lecturer: Akosua Kwakye (M.Med. Anesthesiology)

 Nervous system
The nervous system has two divisions;

1. The central nervous system (CNS)

2.The peripheral nervous system

(PNS)
 The central nervous system
(CNS)
 CNS
1. It is safely contained within the skull and
vertebral canal of the spine.

2. It consists of the brain and spinal

cord.
 Brain

The human brain has been called the most complex object in the known universe,
and in many ways it’s the final frontier of science.

A hundred billion neurons, and close to a quadrillion connections between them.

The brain lies in the cranial cavity and weighs between 1450– 1600 g. It receives
15% of the cardiac output and has a system of autoregulation ensuring the blood
supply is constant despite positional changes.

Most of the expansion comes from the cerebral cortex, a convoluted layer of
neural tissue that covers the surface of the forebrain.

Especially expanded are the frontal lobes, which are involved in executive
functions such as self-control, planning, reasoning and abstract thought.
 Cerebrum

The cerebrum, also known as the telencephalon, is the largest and

most highly developed part of the human brain.

It encompasses about two-thirds of the brain mass and lies over and
around most of the structures of the brain.

The cerebrum of an adult is divided into a pair of large hemispheres.

The surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres are highly folded and

covered by a superficial layer of grey matter called the cerebral cortex.
 Diencephalon
The diencephalon provides a functional link between the cerebral
hemispheres and the rest of the CNS.

It contains three paired structures; the thalamus, hypothalamus and the epithalamus.

Thalamus
The thalamus acts as a relay station for sensory impulses going to cerebral cortex for
integration and motor impulses entering and leaving the cerebral hemispheres. It also has a
role in memory.

Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is closely associated with the pituitary gland and produces two
hormones: antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin. It is also the chief autonomic
integration center and is part of the limbic system, which is the emotional brain.

Epithalamus
The epithalamus structure is linked to the pineal gland which secretes the hormone
melatonin responsible for sleep wake cycles.
 Brain stem

The structures that form the brain stem are involved in many
activities that are essential for life.

The brain stem is associated with the cranial nerves. The structures of the
brain stem include the midbrain, pons and the medulla oblongata.

1. Midbrain
The midbrain contains nuclei that process auditory and visual information
and reflexes. It is also maintains consciousness. It provides a conduction
pathway that connects the cerebrum with the lower brain structures and
spinal cord.

2. Pons
The pons connects and communicates with the cerebellum. The pons works
with the medulla oblongata to control the depth and rate of respiration and
contains nuclei that function in visceral and somatic motor control.
3. Medulla oblongata

The medulla oblongata is a relay station for sensory

nerves going
to the cerebrum. The medulla contains autonomic
centres such as the cardiac centre, the respiratory
centre, the vasomotor centre and the coughing,
sneezing and vomiting centre.

The medulla is also the site of decussation of the

pyramidal tracts – this means that the right side of the
body is controlled by the left cerebral hemisphere and
vice versa.
 Cerebellum
Partially hidden by the cerebral hemispheres is the second largest
structure of the brain.

The cerebellum coordinates voluntary muscle movement, motor learning,

cognitive functions and balance and posture. It ensures that muscle
movements are smooth, coordinated and precise.

Motor commands are not initiated in the cerebellum; rather, the

cerebellum modifies the motor commands of the descending pathways to
make movements more adaptive and accurate.

Although the cerebellum accounts for approximately 10% of the brain’s

volume, it contains over 50% of the total number of neurons in the brain.
 Other parts of the brain
Other parts of the brain include the midbrain
and the pons:
1. the midbrain provides conduction pathways
to and from higher and lower centers

2. the pons acts as a pathway to higher

structures; it contains conduction pathways
between the medulla and higher brain centers
 Spinal cord

The adult spinal cord is approximately 45 cm in length and 14 mm

in width.

There are two layers;

1. an outer layer of white matter and
2. in inner layer made up of grey matter, which surrounds
a small central canal.
The spinal cord is enclosed within the vertebral canal which forms a protective
ring of bone around the cord.

Other protective coverings include the spinal meninges, which are

three layers of connective tissue coverings which extend around
the spinal cord.
Structure of the spinal cord
 Other parts of the central nervous system

The meninges are three layers of membranes

that cover the brain and the spinal cord. The
outermost layer is the dura mater. The middle
layer is the arachnoid, and the innermost layer
is the pia mater.

The meninges offer protection to the brain and

the spinal cord by acting as a barrier against
bacteria and other microorganisms.

The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulates

around the brain and spinal cord. It protects and
nourishes the brain and spinal cord.
 Spinal meninges/Spinal cord layers

The spinal meninges consist of

1. pia matter (inner layer),
2. arachnoid matter (middle layer) and
3. dura matter (the outermost layer which
consists of a dense, irregular connective
tissue)
 Pia matter

Pia matter, often referred to as simply the pia, is the

delicate innermost layer of the meninges, the
membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord.
Pia matter is the thin, translucent,
mesh-like meningeal envelope, spanning nearly the entire
surface of the brain. The pia is firmly adhered to the
surface of the brain and loosely connected to the
arachnoid layer. The pia matter functions to cover and
protect the CNS, to protect the blood vessels and enclose
the venous sinuses near the CNS, to contain the
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and to form partitions with the
skull.
 Arachnoid matter

The arachnoid matter is the protective membrane

that covers the brain and spinal cord. It includes a
simple squamous epithelium called the arachnoid
membrane and the arachnoid trabeculae which is
a network of collagen elastic fibres that extend
between the arachnoid membrane and the outer
surface of the pia matter.
 Dura matter

The dura matter is a thin membrane that is the

outermost of the three layers of the meninges
that surround the brain and spinal cord. The
dura matter has several functions and layers.
The dura matter is a sac that envelops the
arachnoid matter.
It surrounds and supports the dural sinuses and
carries blood from the brain toward the heart.
Neurons/nerves
 Neurons
The neuron is the basic working unit of the
brain, a specialized cell designed to transmit
information to other nerve cells, muscle, or
gland cells. Neurons are cells within the nervous
system that transmit information to other nerve
cells, muscle, or gland cells. Most neurons have
a cell body, an axon, and dendrites.
 Neuron Structure
Neuron varies in shape and size depending upon their function
and location.
All neurons have three different parts –
1. dendrites,
2. cell body and
3. axon.

Parts of Neuron
Following are the different parts of a neuron:

4. Dendrites
These are branch-like structures that receive messages from
other neurons and allow the transmission of messages to the
cell body.
2. Cell Body
Each neuron has a cell body with a nucleus, Golgi body,
endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria and other
components.

3. Axon
Axon is a tube-like structure that carries electrical
impulse from the cell body to the axon terminals that
passes the impulse to another neuron.

Synapse
It is the chemical junction between the terminal of one
neuron and dendrites of another neuron.
 Neuron Types
There are three different types of neurons:

1.Sensory Neurons
The sensory neurons convert signals from the external environment into
corresponding internal stimuli. The sensory inputs activate the sensory
neurons and carry sensory information to the brain and spinal cord. They are
pseudo unipolar in structure.

2. Motor Neurons
These are multipolar and are located in the central nervous system extending
their axons outside the central nervous system. This is the most common type
of neuron and transmits information from the brain to the muscles of the
body.

3. Interneurons
They are multipolar in structure. Their axons connect only to the nearby
sensory and motor neurons. The help in passing signals between two neurons.
 Peripheral nervous system(PNS)
This consists of
1. cranial nerves and
2. spinal nerves.

The PNS includes the autonomic

nervous system (ANS).
 A nerve
Nerve cells are called neurons, or nerve fibers.
Whatever their specific functions, all neurons have the same
physical parts.

The cell body contains the nucleus and is essential for the continued
life of the neuron.

Nerves are made up of bundles of axons that work together to

facilitate communication between the CNS and PNS. It's important
to note that “peripheral nerve” actually refers to the PNS. Axon
bundles are called “tracts” in the CNS
 Types of nerves

1. Sensory Nerves
These are the nerves that send messages to the brain or the spinal
cord from the sense organs. These are enclosed in the form of a
bundle like structures or nerve fibres in the peripheral nervous
system. They carry information from the PNS to the CNS( Central
Nervous System).

2. Motor Nerves
Motor nerves are those nerves those that carry the messages in the
form of a response from the brain or the spinal cord to other parts
of the body such as the muscles and glands. They are responsible
for carrying the information from the CNS to the PNS.
 Mixed nerves
Mixed nerves are the nerves that perform both
the action of sensory nerves as well as a motor
nerve. They transform electrical impulses from
the central nervous system to the muscles of the
body. Generally, the mixed nerves transmit
impulses at the rate of 120 meters per second or
432 kilometers per hour.
 Structure of a Nerve
• Nerves are the organs that make up the
peripheral nervous system. It consists of a cord-
like structure with multiple nerve fibres (also
called axons) wrapped in layers of tissue and fat.

• This axon has layers of connective tissue around

it. This connective tissue is called the
endoneurium. This entire nerve is further
enclosed in another layer of connective tissue
called the epineurium.
A nerve cell
 Spinal nerves
The spinal nerves provide the paths of communication
between the spinal cord and specific regions of the body
as they connect the CNS to sensory receptors, muscles
and glands in all the parts of the body.

These nerves are located at

1. 8 cervical,
2. 12 thoracic,
3. 5 lumbar,
4. 5 sacral, and
5. 1 coccygeal.
• There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves attached
to the spinal cord within the human body
which are named and numbered according to
the region and level of the vertebral column
from which they emerge.

• Each nerve innervates a group of muscles

(myotome) and an area of skin (dermatome)
and most also innervate some of the thoracic
and abdominal organs.
A typical spinal nerve has two connections to
the spinal cord:
1. a posterior root and
2. an anterior root which unite to form a spinal
nerve at the intervertebral foramen.

A spinal nerve is an example of a mixed nerve as

it contains both
1.sensory (posterior root) and
2. motor (anterior root) nerves.
 Cranial nerves

The human body contains 12 pairs of cranial nerves that emerge

from the brain and supply various structures, most of which are
associated with the head and neck.
The impulses for the senses of smell, taste, sight,
hearing, and equilibrium are all carried by cranial
nerves to their respective sensory areas in the brain

The 12 pairs of cranial nerves differ in their functions:

1. some are sensory nerves, that is contain sensory fibres,

2. some are motor nerves, that is contain only motor fibres, and

3. mixed nerves, that is contain both sensory and motor nerves.

 autonomic nervous system(ANS)
The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and
regulates bodily functions, such as the heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary
response, urination, and sexual arousal.

The ANS has two divisions:

1. sympathetic and

2. parasympathetic.

Often, they function in opposition to each other, as you will see. The activity of both
divisions is integrated by the hypothalamus, which ensures that the visceral effectors
will respond appropriately to the situation
 sympathetic nervous system

• Another name for the sympathetic division is thoracolumbar

division, which tells us where the sympathetic preganglionic
neurons originate.

• The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for the “fight
or flight” response during any potential danger.

• This dominates during stress situations; responses prepare the

body to meet physical demands.
 parasympathetic nervous system
• The other name for the parasympathetic division
is the craniosacral division. The cell bodies of
parasympathetic preganglionic neurons are in the
brain stem and the sacral segments of the spinal
cord.

• The parasympathetic nervous system inhibits the

body from overworking and restores the body to
a calm and composed state.
 neurotransmitters

• Neurotransmitters enable nerve impulses to

cross synapses.

• Two chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) are used to communicate within

the autonomic nervous system:

1. Acetylcholine
2. Norepinephrine

• Nerve fibers that secrete acetylcholine are called cholinergic fibers.

• Fibers that secrete norepinephrine are called adrenergic fibers.

• Generally, acetylcholine has parasympathetic (inhibiting) effects and

norepinephrine has sympathetic (stimulating) effects.

• However, acetylcholine has some sympathetic effects. For example, it sometimes

stimulates sweating or makes the hair stand on end.
 The senses
• The special senses are smell, taste, vision and hearing
(including equilibrium).

• They are known as the special senses because their

sensory receptors are located within relatively large
sensory organs located in the head, the nose, tongue,
eyes and ears.

• The skin is sometimes considered a sense organ, touch

is not considered a special sense but a generalized
one.
The eye
 Sight
The eye permits us to see and understand shapes,
colours and dimensions of objects by processing the
light they reflect or emit.
The eye is capable of detecting bright light or dim
light, it is a complex structure designed to gather a
significant amount of information concerning the
environment.
The eye consists of the cornea, iris, pupil, lens and
retina (this houses the light-sensitive
photoreceptors)
 The orbit

Two orbits protect the eyes located at the front

of the skull, with a wider opening anteriorly
narrowing to a small opening posteriorly where
the optic nerve exits connecting to the visual
pathways and brain.
 The eye lids, eye lashes and eye brows

• External to the eyeball these structures provide protection. Other

protective structures include the conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus
and extrinsic eye muscles.

• Eyelids are thin, loose folds of skin covering the anterior eye,
protecting the eye from foreign bodies and excessive light, they also
spread tears by blinking. They contain the puncta through which
tears flow.
• Eyelashes protect the eye from foreign particles acting as sensors,
they are short hairs projecting from the top and bottom borders of
the eyelids. An unexpected touch initiates the blinking reflex.
• Eyebrows provide shade, keeping perspiration and other debris
away from the eyes.
 The lacrimal apparatus

The lacrimal apparatus produces and drains lacrimal

fluid. The surface of the eye is continuously bathed in
tears predominantly secreted by the lacrimal gland,
conjunctival secretions are also added. These structures
secrete, distribute and drain, cleaning and moistening the
eye’s surface.
Fluid is pumped throughout the system each time blinking
occurs. Tears are drained away via the nasolacrimal
system they have antimicrobial properties
The lacrimal apparatus
 The sclera

This is the white outer layer of the eyeball. At

the front of the eye it is continuous with the
cornea.
 The cornea
• The cornea is your eye's clear, protective outer
layer.

• Along with the sclera (the white of your eye), it

serves as a barrier against dirt, germs, and other
things that can cause damage.

• The cornea can also filter out some of the sun's

ultraviolet light.
 The aqueous humour
• This is a transparent fluid filling the anterior chamber of
the eye, providing oxygen and nutrients to the lens and
cornea.

• Between the cornea and the front surface of the

crystalline lens is the aqueous humour; continuously
filtering out of blood vessels in the ciliary processes of
the ciliary body.

• The aqueous is a part of the optical pathway of the eye.

 The iris
• The coloured aspect of the eyeball, shaped like a flattened doughnut,
controls light levels inside the eye similar to the aperture on a
camera.

• The round opening in the centre is the pupil. A number of tiny

muscles embedded in the iris dilate and constrict pupil size.

• The circular sphincter muscle (innervated by the parasympathetic

system) lies around the very edge of the pupil, causing the pupil to
constrict in bright light.

• The radial dilator muscle (innervated by the parasympathetic system)

runs radially through the iris, dilating the eye in dim lighting.
 The lens and ciliary muscle
• The lens is posterior to the pupil and the iris, it is a transparent structure,
changing its shape in order to increase or decrease the amount of refracting
power applied to light coming into the eye.

• The lens provides the remaining variable focusing power and serves to further
refine the focus, permitting the eye to focus on objects at different distances.

• An elastic extracellular matrix, the capsule surrounds the lens providing a

smooth optical surface, it is an anchor for the suspension of the lens within the
eye.

• A meshwork of nonelastic microfibrils, or ‘zonules’, anchor into the capsule

close to the equator of the lens connecting into ciliary muscle.

• Ciliary muscle is part of the ciliary body, divided into ciliary muscle, ciliary
processes and pars plana.
 The retina
• Mostly this is a transparent thin tissue designed to capture photons of light
and initiate processing of the image by the brain.

• Average thickness of the retina is 250μm and it consists of 10 layers. There

are two types of receptors: rods and cones:

• The outer segment contains light sensitive visual pigment molecules – opsins
– in stacked disks (rods) or invaginations (cones).

• Cones provide the ability to discern colour and the ability to see fine detail,
they are more concentrated in the central retina.

• Rods are mainly responsible for peripheral vision; vision under low light
conditions, and are more prevalent in the mid-peripheral and peripheral
retina
Hearing
 The ear

The ear has two key functions:

1. to assist with balance (equilibrium) and
2. to allow us to hear the sounds around us.

The ear is composed of three sections;

• outer (external)
• middle
• inner
 The outer (external ear)
• The outer ear consists of the auricle and the ear canal.

• The auricle, or pinna, is made of cartilage covered with skin.

• The ear canal is lined with skin that contains ceruminous

glands. It may also be called the external auditory meatus, and
is a tunnel into the temporal bone, curving slightly forward and
down.
 The middle ear
• The middle ear is an air-filled cavity in the temporal bone. The
eardrum, or tympanic membrane, is stretched across the end of
the ear canal and vibrates when sound waves strike it.

• The eustachian tube (auditory tube) extends from

the middle ear to the nasopharynx and permits air to
enter or leave the middle ear cavity.

• The air pressure in the middle ear must be the same as the
external atmospheric pressure in order for the eardrum to
vibrate properly.
 Tympanic membrane
• The tympanic membrane is an oval, thin, semi-
transparent membrane separating the external and
middle ear.

• Air vibrations collected by the auricle are transferred to

the mobile tympanic membrane, which then transmits
the sound to the ossicles.

• Multiple structures are contained within the tympanic

cavity. Muscles, nerves, and the auditory tube occupy
space within the tympanic cavity
 Ossicles
• From the deep surface of the tympanic
membrane to the oval window is a chain of
movable bones, the ossicles, malleus
(hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup).

• These serve to transmit and amplify sound

waves from the air to the perilymph of the
internal ear.
 Auditory tube /Eustachian tube
• The auditory tube (eustachian tube) is the
communication between the middle ear and the
nasopharynx.

• It equalizes pressure across the tympanic membrane.

The blood supply is derived from a number of arteries,
primarily from the external and internal carotid.

• The middle ear is supplied by the auriculotemporal (Vth

cranial) and tympanic (IXth cranial) nerves and by the
auricular branch of the vagus.
 INNER EAR
• Within the temporal bone, the inner ear is a cavity
called the bony labyrinth (a labyrinth is a series of
interconnecting paths or tunnels, somewhat like a
maze but without dead ends; which is lined with
membrane called the membranous labyrinth.

• Perilymph is the fluid found between bone and

membrane, and endolymph is the fluid within the
membranous structures of the inner ear.
• Perilymph, which closely resembles cerebrospinal fluid,
flows between the bony and membranous labyrinths.

• Endolymph is contained in the membranous labyrinth.

These fluids are in separate compartments. The bony
labyrinth can be subdivided into the vestibule, three
semicircular canals and the cochlea.

The vestibule
This contains a pair of membranous sacs: the saccule and
the utricle. Receptors here provide for sensations of gravity
and linear acceleration.
 The cochlea
• A bony, spiral-shaped chamber, it contains the
cochlear duct of the membranous labyrinth.

• The sense of hearing is provided by receptors

within the cochlear duct.

• Two perilymph-filled chambers are on either side

of the duct.
 The semicircular canals
• These enclose the slender semicircular ducts.

• Receptors are stimulated when the head

moves.

• The fluid-filled chambers within the vestibule

are usually continuous with the semicircular
canals
Olfaction
 Sense of smell
The sense of smell, or olfaction, is the special
sense through which smells (or odors) are
perceived.
 Olfactory nerve and the cribriform plate

• The olfactory nerve is typically considered the first cranial

nerve, or simply CN I, that contains sensory nerve fibers
relating to the sense of smell.

• The afferent nerve fibers of the olfactory receptor neurons

transmit nerve impulses about odors to the central nervous
system (olfaction).

• The cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, separated at the

midline by the crista galli, comprises a number of small
foramina, the olfactory nerve fibres.
 Olfactory bulb

The olfactory bulb lies inferior to the basal frontal lobe and
is a highly organised structure composed of several distinct
layers and synaptic specialisations.
The layers are:

• glomerular layer
• external plexiform layer
• mitral cell layer
• internal plexiform layer
• granule cell layer.
The olfactory bulb (nerve)
 Olfactory tract
• The olfactory tract is an ovoid structure which
contains specialized neurones called mitral
cells.

• The olfactory tract travels posteriorly on the

inferior surface of the frontal lobe.
Gustation
 Taste
• Gustation comes from ‘gusto’ meaning taste or like, it is the
formal term for the sense of taste.

• In order to create the sensation of taste, a substance has to be in

solution of saliva so that that substance can enter the taste
pores.

• Taste drives the appetite and also protects us from poison.

• Mostly when we taste bitter or sour this causes dislike because

most poisons are bitter, while foods that have gone off taste
acidic.
Taste
 Tongue
• The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth
and is covered with moist, pink tissue called
mucosa.

• The papillae give the tongue its rough texture.

Thousands of taste buds cover the surfaces of
the papillae.
The tongue
 Taste bud
Taste buds are sensory organs that are found on your
tongue and allow you to experience tastes that are sweet,
salty, sour, and bitter.

5 basic tastes—

1. sweet,
2. sour,
3. salty,
4. bitter, and
5. umami
 Taste bud anatomy
Taste buds exist primarily in the small bumps on your
tongue, called papillae. They also are present in other
parts of the mouth, like the palate and throat.

There are four types of papillae:

1. Filiform: The most common, covering the tough

surface of the tongue, and do not contain taste buds
2. Fungiform: Located near the front of the tongue
3. Circumvallate: Located near the back of the tongue
4. Foliate: Located on the sides of the tongue
 sense of touch
• The sense of touch allows you to tell if something is
hot or cold, dull or sharp, rough or smooth, wet or
dry.

• Touch consists of several distinct sensations

communicated to the brain through specialized
neurons in the skin. Pressure, temperature, light
touch, vibration, pain and other sensations are all
part of the touch sense and are all attributed to
different receptors in the skin.
Integumentary systems
 The skin
• The skin (also called the integumentary system) is the largest
organ of the body, it accounts for approximately 15% of the
total adult body weight and it is composed of specialist cells
and structures.

• The skin performs a number of essential functions; these

include protecting the person against external physical,
chemical and biological attack, it also prevents the loss of
excess water loss from the body and plays a key a role in
thermoregulation.

• The skin is continuous, with the mucous membranes that line

the surface of the body.
The skin and its derivatives, for example, the
hair, nails, sweat and oil glands make up the
integumentary system

it is composed of three layers:

• the epidermis
• the dermis
• subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis).
 EPIDERMIS
• The epidermis is made of stratified squamous keratinizing
epithelial tissue and is thickest on the palms and soles.

• The cells that are most abundant are called keratinocytes,

and there are no capillaries present between them.

• Although the epidermis may be further subdivided into

four or five sublayers, two of these are of greatest
importance: the innermost layer, the stratum
germinativum, and the outermost layer, the stratum
corneum.
1. Stratum germinativum—
This is the innermost layer is where mitosis takes place; new cells produce keratin
and die as they are pushed toward the surface. Defensins are antimicrobial
peptides produced when the skin is injured. Vitamin D is formed from cholesterol
on exposure to the UV rays of sunlight.

2. Stratum corneum—
This is the outermost layers of the skin; it is made of specialized skin cells and
keratin. keratin prevents loss and entry of water and resists entry of pathogens
and chemicals.

3. Langerhans cells—
This phagocytize foreign material, take it to lymph nodes, and stimulate an
immune response by lymphocytes.

4. Melanocytes—
Located in the lower epidermis where melanin is produced. UV rays stimulate
melanin production; melanin prevents further exposure of the stratum
germinativum to UV rays by darkening the skin.
 DERMIS
• The dermis is made of an irregular type of fibrous
connective tissue, irregular meaning that the fibers are
not parallel, but run in all directions.

• Fibroblasts(Connective tissues) produce both collagen and elastin

fibers.

• Collagen fibers are strong, and elastin fibers are able to

recoil after being stretched. Strength and elasticity are
two characteristics of the dermis.

• With increasing age, however, the deterioration of the elastin

fibers causes the skin to lose its elasticity.
• The uneven junction of the dermis with the
epidermis is called the papillary layer.

• Within the dermis are the accessory skin

structures: hair and nail follicles, sensory
receptors, and several types of glands.

• Some of these project through the epidermis

to the skin surface, but their active portions
are in the dermis.
1. Hair follicles—this where mitosis takes place in the hair root;
new cells produce keratin, die, and become the hair shaft. Hair of
the scalp provides insulation from cold for the head; eyelashes
keep dust out of eyes; nostril hairs keep dust out of nasal cavities.

2. Nail follicles—they are found at the ends of fingers and toes;

mitosis takes place in the nail root; the nail itself is dead,
keratinized cells. Nails protect the ends of the fingers and toes,
enable the fingers to pick up small objects, and provide for
efficient.

3. Receptors—this detect changes in the skin: touch, pressure,

heat, cold, and pain; provide information about the external
environment that initiates appropriate responses; sensitivity of
the skin depends on the number of receptors present.
4. Sebaceous glands—they secrete sebum into hair
follicles or to the skin surface; sebum inhibits the
growth of bacteria and prevents drying of skin and hair.

5. Ceruminous glands—they also secrete cerumen in

the ear canals; cerumen prevents drying of the eardrum

6. Apocrine sweat glands—these are modified scent

glands in axillae and genital area; activated by stress and
emotions
7. Eccrine sweat glands—most numerous on face,
palms, soles. Activated by high external temperature or
exercise; sweat on skin surface is evaporated by excess body
heat; potential disadvantage is dehydration. Excretion of small
amounts of NaCl and urea is a very minor function.

8. Arterioles—smooth muscle permits constriction

or dilation. Vasoconstriction in cold temperatures
decreases dermal blood flow to conserve heat in
the body core. Vasodilation in warm temperatures
increases dermal blood flow to bring heat to the
surface to be lost. Vasoconstriction during stress
shunts blood away from the skin to more vital
organs, such as muscles, to permit a physical
response, if necessary.
The hair and associated glands
The nails
 SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE
The subcutaneous tissue may also be called the
superficial fascia, one of the connective tissue
membranes. Made of
1. areolar connective tissue and
2. Adipose tissue, the superficial fascia
connects the dermis to the underlying
muscles.
1. Areolar tissue—also called loose connective tissue;
the matrix contains tissue fluid and WBCs that destroy
pathogens that get through breaks in the skin; mast cells
are rich in histamine(immune response) and heparin(anti
coagulant), chemicals that bring about inflammation.

2. Adipose tissue—stores fat as potential energy;

cushions bony prominences; provides some insulation
from cold. Other functions: contributes to appetite, the
use of insulin, and the activation of
WBCs.
Urinary System
 The urinary system
The urinary system, also known as the renal system or urinary tract,
consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and the urethra.

The purpose of the urinary system is;

1. to eliminate waste from the body,
2. regulate blood volume and
3. blood pressure,
4. control levels of electrolytes and
5. metabolites, and
6. regulate blood pH
 KIDNEYS
• The two kidneys are located in the upper abdominal cavity on
either side of the vertebral column, behind the peritoneum
(retroperitoneal).

• The upper portions of the kidneys rest on the lower surface of the
diaphragm and are enclosed and protected by the lower rib cage.

• The kidneys are embedded in adipose tissue that acts as a cushion

and is in turn covered by a fibrous connective tissue membrane
called the renal fascia, which helps hold the kidneys in place.
 INTERNAL STRUCTURE
OF THE KIDNEY
• In a coronal or frontal section of the kidney, three
areas can be distinguished.
• The lateral and middle areas are tissue layers, and the
medial area at the hilus is a cavity. The outer tissue layer is
called the renal cortex; it is made of renal corpuscles and
convoluted tubules.
• The inner tissue layer is the renal medulla, which is made
of loops of Henle and collecting tubules (also parts of the
nephron). The renal medulla consists of wedge-shaped
pieces called renal pyramids. The tip of each pyramid is its
apex or papilla.
• The third area is the renal pelvis; this is not a
layer of tissues, but rather a cavity formed by
the expansion of the ureter within the kidney at
the hilus.
• Funnel shaped extensions of the renal pelvis,
called calyces (singular: calyx), enclose the
papillae of the renal pyramids.
• Urine flows from the renal pyramids into the
calyces, then to the renal pelvis and out into
the ureter
 THE NEPHRON
• These are small structures and they form the
functional units of the kidney.
• The nephron consists of a glomerulus and a
renal tubule.
• The renal tubule can be further divided into
Bowman’s capsule, proximal convoluted
tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted
tubule and the collecting ducts
• There are approximately over one million
nephrons per kidney and it is in these structures
that urine is formed.
• Its main function is to regulate water and
electrolytes by filtering the blood, reabsorbing
what is needed and excreting the rest as urine.
• A nephron eliminates wastes from the body,
regulates blood volume and blood pressure,
controls levels of electrolytes and metabolites
and regulates blood pH
 Glomerular capsule
• Also known as glomerular capsule, this is a cuplike sac and is the
first portion of the nephron.
• A Bowman’s capsule is part of the filtration system in the kidneys.
• When blood reaches the kidneys for filtration, it enters the
Bowman’s capsule first, with the capsule separating the blood into
two components: a filtrated blood product and a filtrate which is
moved through the nephron, another structure in the kidneys.
• The glomerular capsule consists of visceral and parietal layers.
The visceral layer is lined by epithelial cells called podocytes
while the parietal layer is lined with simple squamous epithelium,
and it is in the Bowman’s capsule that the network of capillaries
called the glomerulus is found
 Glomerulus
• The glomerulus consists of a tight network of
capillaries surrounded by podocytes. Podocytes
have narrow cell processes that in turn give
secondary extensions called pedicles.
• Podocytes completely surround the capillary
network. As blood flows though the glomerulus,
water and metabolic wastes are filtered through the
capillary walls by the surrounding podocytes. Water
and wastes pass into the Bowman’s capsule.
 Proximal convoluted tubule
• From the Bowman’s capsule, the filtrate drains into the proximal
convoluted tubule.
• The surface of the epithelial cells of this segment of the nephron
is covered with densely packed microvilli.
• The microvilli increase the surface area of the cells thus
facilitating their resorptive function. The in-folded membranes
forming the microvilli are the site of numerous sodium pumps.

• Reabsorption of salt, water and glucose from the glomerular

filtrate occurs in this section of the tubule; at the same time
certain substances, including uric acid and drug metabolites,
are actively transferred from the blood capillaries into the tubule
for excretion.
 Loop of Henle
• In the kidney, the loop of Henle is the portion of a
nephron that leads from the proximal convoluted tubule
to the distal convoluted tubule.
• It can be divided into two sections; the descending and
the ascending loops.
• The thin descending limb has low permeability to ions
and urea, while being highly permeable to
water.
• The loop has a sharp bend in the renal medulla going
from descending to ascending thin limb
• The thin ascending loop is impermeable to
water, but it is permeable to ions. Sodium
(Na+), potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl-) ions
are reabsorbed from the urine by secondary
active transport by a Na-K-Cl cotransporter.
• The electrical and concentration gradient
drives more reabsorption of Na+, as well as
other cations such as magnesium (Mg2+) and
calcium (Ca2+).
• The loop of Henle is supplied by blood in a series of
straight capillaries descending from the cortical efferent
arterioles.
• These capillaries (vasa recta) also have a counter-current
multiplier mechanism that prevents washout of solutes
from the medulla,
thereby maintaining the medullary concentration.
• As water is osmotically moved from the descending limb
into the interstitium, it readily enters the vasa recta.
• The low blood flow through the vasa recta allows time
for osmotic equilibration, and can be altered by changing
the resistance of the vessels’ efferent arterioles.
 Distal convoluted tubule
• A distal convoluted tubule is a twisted, tube-like structure of the
nephron.

• The distal convoluted tubule is the section farthest away from the renal
corpuscle, and the cells that line it are able to actively pump potentially
harmful substances, such as ammonia, urea and certain drugs, out of the
blood and into the urine.

• From the distal convoluted tubule, useful substances are

returned to the blood, while waste products and toxins are added to the
filtrate. Hydrogen ions are also pumped in, making the urine pH more
acidic.

• The distal convoluted tubule walls do not normally allow water to pass
through, but the hormone ADH can open channels which allow water to
move out, concentrating the urine
 Collecting ducts
• From the distal convoluted tubule, filtrate drains into what are
known as collecting ducts.

• These are tubes which receive filtrate from the distal convoluted tubules of
many nephrons. Inside these collecting ducts, water can be absorbed to
regulate the final concentration of urine produced by the kidneys.
•
On leaving the collecting ducts, urine enters a space known as the
renal pelvis, from where it passes into the bladder and is expelled
from the body during urination.

• The collecting duct system is under the control of ADH. In the absence of
ADH, water in the renal filtrate is allowed to enter the urine, promoting
diuresis. When ADH is present, aquaporins aid reabsorption of water,
thereby inhibiting diuresis
 Ureters
• The ureters transport urine from the pelvis of
the kidney to the bladder. The flow of urine is
as a result of peristaltic contraction of the
muscular walls of the ureter.

• Approximately 1–5 peristaltic waves form

every minute depending on the formation of
urine
 Urinary bladder
• The urinary bladder is a hollow muscular organ and is located in
the pelvic cavity posterior to the symphysis pubis.

• In the male the bladder lies anterior to the rectum and in the female it lies
anterior to the vagina and inferior to the uterus; it is a smooth muscular sac
which stores urine.

• When the bladder is empty, the inner section of the bladder forms folds but
as the bladder fills up with urine the walls of the bladder become smoother.

• The bladder normally distends and holds approximately 300–350 ml of urine.

• In females the bladder is slightly smaller because the uterus occupies the
space above the bladder
 Layers of the bladder
The bladder is composed of three layers.
1. The serous coat (tunica serosa) is a partial one, and is derived from the
peritoneum.

2. The muscular coat (tunica muscularis) consists of three layers of

unstriped muscular fibres: an external layer composed of fibres
having for the most part a longitudinal arrangement; a middle
layer, in which the fibres are arranged, more or less, in a circular
manner; and an internal layer, in which the fibres have a general
longitudinal arrangement.

3. The mucous coat (tunica mucosa) is thin, smooth and of a pale rose
colour. It is continuous above through the ureters with the lining
membrane of the renal tubules, and below with that of the urethra.
 Urethra
The urethra is a muscular tube that drains urine
from the bladder and conveys it out of the body.
It contains three coats and they are muscular,
erectile and mucous, the muscular is the
continuation of the bladder muscle layer.
 Male urethra
• In the male, the urethra not only excretes fluid wastes but is also
part of the reproductive system. Rather than the straight tube
found in the female body, the male urethra is shaped like a ‘S’ to
follow the line of the penis. It is approximately 20 centimeters long.

• The male urethra passes through three regions:

1. prostatic
2. membranous (shortest and least distensible portion of the
urethra) and the
3. penile urethra (is the region that spans the corpus spongiosum of
the penis).
• The prostatic portion is only about 2.5 cm long
and passes along the neck of the urinary
bladder through the prostate gland.

• This section is designed to accept the drainage

from the tiny ducts within the prostate and is
equipped with two ejaculatory tubes.
 Female urethra
• The female urethra is bound to the anterior vaginal wall.
• The external opening of the urethra is anterior to the
vagina and posterior to the clitoris. In the female, the
urethra is approximately 4 centimeters long and leads out
of the body via urethral orifice.
• In the female, the urethral orifice is located in the vestibule
in the labia minora.
• This can be found located in between the clitoris and the
vaginal orifice. In the female body the urethra’s only
function is to transport urine out of the body
Endocrine System
 The endocrine glands
• Endocrine glands are groups of secretory cells that are
surrounded by a large network of capillaries, this rich blood
supply permits diffusion of hormones.

• Endocrine glands are ductless, vascular and most of them usually

contain intracellular vacuoles or granules that store hormones.

• Exocrine glands however, for example the salivary glands, the

mammary glands, sweat glands and those glands located within
the gastrointestinal tract (for example, mucus glands), are
usually much less vascular with a duct or lumen to a membrane
surface.
 The pituitary gland
• The pituitary gland is approximately 1cm in diameter (the size of a
pea) and is cone shaped

• It rests in the hypophyseal fossa, a depression in the sphenoid bone

under the hypothalamus. The gland is connected to the
hypothalamus by a slender stalk called the infundibulum.

• The pituitary gland and the hypothalamus act as a unit, controlling

most of the other endocrine glands.

• Within the gland there are two distinct areas: the anterior lobe
(adenohypophysis) composed of glandular epithelium and the
posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) made of a down growth of
nervous tissue from the brain.
 The pineal gland
• The pineal gland secretes the hormone melatonin when
sleeping, this influences circadian rhythm (this is roughly
a 24 hour cycle in the physiological processes of
humans), the pinealocytes synthesise melatonin directly
into the cerebrospinal fluid, which then takes it into the
blood.

• Secretion of the hormone is controlled by daylight with

levels fluctuating throughout the day and seasons.
 The pancreas
• The pancreas is located in the epigastric and left
hypochondriac regions of the abdomen, the head of
the pancreas lies close to the first part of the small
intestine – the duodenum and the body behind the
stomach, the tail extends out towards the spleen.

• It is about 12 to 15 cm in length and weighs

approximately 60 g, the pancreas is a pale grey
elongated gland.
• The pancreas is innervated (nerve supply to an
organ or other body parts) by the
parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous
systems. The secretion of insulin and glucagon
are stimulated by the nervous system.

• This gland has both endocrine and exocrine

functions. Most of the tissue within the
pancreas is made up of exocrine tissue and the
associated ducts.
1. Endocrine glands are the glands that secrete hormones without
ducts.

2. Endocrine glands secrete hormones internally, using the

bloodstream.

3. Exocrine glands secrete hormones through ducts.

4. Exocrine glands, such as sweat and salivary glands, secrete

externally and internally via ducts.
EG.;

• The pancreas and liver are both endocrine

AND exocrine organs.

• As an endocrine organ, the pancreas secretes

the hormones insulin and glucagon.

• As an exocrine organ, it secretes several

enzymes that are essential for digestion in the
small intestine.
 The thyroid gland
• The thyroid gland is located in the neck, anterior to the
larynx and the trachea, situated at the level of the 5th,
6th and 7th cervical vertebrae and the 1st thoracic
vertebra.

• This is a butterfly shaped gland with two lobes

comprised on either side of the thyroid cartilage and the
upper incomplete cartilaginous rings of the trachea of a
fibrous capsule weighing approximately 25 g.
• The gland is brownish red in colour. Lying in
front of the trachea is the narrow isthmus
joining the left and right lobes. Each lobe is cone
shaped, measuring approximately 5 cm long
and 3 cm wide.

• The upper aspects of the lobe are known as the

upper poles and lower ends the lower poles.
The lobes are compromised of hollow spherical
shaped follicles surrounded by capillaries
 Parathyroid gland
• Four small masses of epithelial tissue embedded in the connective tissue
capsule on the posterior surface of the thyroid glands are the parathyroid
glands.

• They are responsible for the creation and secretion of parathyroid

hormone, and are arranged in nests or cords around a dense capillary
network.

• Parathyroid hormone is the most important regulator of blood calcium

level.
 The adrenal glands
• The adrenal glands are located one each near the upper portion of
each kidney. Each gland has an outer cortex and an inner medulla.

• The cortex and medulla, like the anterior and posterior lobes of the
pituitary, secrete different hormones. The adrenal cortex is essential
to life; the medulla may be removed with no life threatening effects.

• The hypothalamus influences both aspects of the adrenal gland

but uses different mechanisms. The adrenal cortex is regulated by
negative feedback involving the hypothalamus and
adrenocorticotropic hormone; the medulla is regulated by nerve
impulses from the hypothalamus
 The gonads
The gonads are the primary reproductive
organs: the testes in the male and the ovaries in
the female. These organs are responsible for
producing the sperm and ova and also secrete
hormones and as such are considered endocrine
glands.
Ovary
Testis
 Other endocrine glands
In addition to the major endocrine glands,
other organs have some hormonal activity as
part of their function.

These include the thymus, stomach, small

intestines, heart and placenta.
Reproductive systems
 Reproductive system
• The system of organs and parts which function
in reproduction consisting in the

• male especially of the testes, penis, seminal

vesicles, prostate, and urethra and in the

• female especially of the ovaries, fallopian

tubes, uterus, vagina, and vulva.
• These reproductive system organs are
necessary for sexual reproduction as they are
responsible for the production of male and
female gametes .

• Gonads also produce sex hormones needed

for the growth and development of primary
and secondary reproductive organs and
structures.
Lateral view of the male reproductive system
Posterior and lateral views of female reproductive system
 Structure of Testes

• Human testes are composed of 900 seminiferous

tubules that contain cells that later differentiate
and mature into male gametes.
• There are two testes in humans, each of which is
plum-sized, measuring approximately 4 cm in
length.
• The seminiferous tubules of the testes are
surrounded by interstitial endocrine cells, also
known as Leydig cells. These cells produce
testosterone, the most important sex hormone
in humans.
• The interstitial cells of Leydig account for
about 20% of the total mass in adult testes.
The cells are almost nonexistent in children
but increase in number after puberty.

• The cells of the testes undergo sporulation to

form sperm-forming cells that, in the presence
of hormones like Luteinizing hormone and
follicle-stimulating hormone, develop into
sperm.
 Structure of Ovaries

• Ovaries in humans occur in pairs and are

present on the ovarian fossa of the lateral wall
in the pelvis.
• Each ovary is enclosed within a capsule and
consists of two parts; cortex and medulla. The
cortex is the outer part of the ovary consisting
of fibrous tissue surrounded by germinal
epithelium.
• The medulla lies in the middle of the ovary and
consists of blood vessels, nerves, and
connective tissues.
• The cortex carries the epithelial cells that
surround the ovary and later turn into female
gamete following maturation and
differentiation.

• The cells of the ovaries secrete the hormone

estrogen and a small amount of testosterone.

• The hormone progesterone, in turn, is

secreted by the corpus luteum during the
menstrual cycle
Male reproductive system
Most of the male reproductive system is located
outside of the body.

• These external structures are the penis,

scrotum, epididymis, and testes.

• The internal organs of the male reproductive

system are called accessory organs/ glands.
They include the vas deferens, seminal vesicles,
prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands.
external male reproductive structures
 The male intromittent organ

An intromittent organ is a general term for an

external organ of a male organism that is
specialized to deliver sperm during copulation.
 Penis

The penis is the male organ for sexual intercourse. It has three
parts:

1. The root: This is the part of the penis that attaches to the wall
of your abdomen.

2. The body or shaft: Shaped like a tube or cylinder, the body of

the penis is made up of three internal chambers. Inside these
chambers there’s a special, sponge-like erectile tissue that
contains thousands of large spaces that fill with blood when you’re
sexually aroused. As the penis fills with blood, it becomes rigid and
erect, which allows for penetration during sex. The skin of the
penis is loose and elastic, allowing for changes in penis size during
an erection.
3. The glans: This is the cone-shaped end of
the penis. The glans, which is also called the
head of the penis, is covered with a loose layer
of skin called foreskin. This skin is sometimes
removed in a procedure called circumcision.
 Scrotum

• The scrotum is the loose pouch-like sac of skin that hangs

behind the penis. It holds the testicles (also called testes), as
well as many nerves and blood vessels.

• The scrotum protects your testes, as well as providing a sort

of climate control system. For normal sperm development,
the testes must be at a temperature slightly cooler than the
body temperature.

• Special muscles in the wall of the scrotum allow it to

contract (tighten) and relax, moving the testicles closer to
the body for warmth and protection or farther away from
the body to cool the temperature.
 Testicles (testes)

• The testes are oval organs about the size of very large
olives that lie in the scrotum, secured at either end by a
structure called the spermatic cord. Most men have two
testes.

• The testes are responsible for making testosterone, the

primary male sex hormone, and for producing sperm.
Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes called
seminiferous tubules.

• These tubules are responsible for producing the sperm

cells through a process called spermatogenesis.
 Epididymis

• The epididymis is a long, coiled tube that rests on

the backside of each testicle. It carries and stores
sperm cells that are created in the testes.

• It’s also the job of the epididymis to bring the sperm

to maturity — the sperm that emerge from the
testes are immature and incapable of fertilization.

• During sexual arousal, contractions force the sperm

into the vas deferens.
internal male reproductive organs
 Male reproductive glands

There are several internal organs — also called

accessory organs/glands — that play a big part
in the male reproductive system. These organs
include:
 Vas deferens
The vas deferens is a long, muscular tube that travels from the
epididymis into the pelvic cavity, to just behind the bladder. The
vas deferens transports mature sperm to the urethra in
preparation for ejaculation.
• Ejaculatory ducts: These ducts are formed by the fusion of the
vas deferens and the seminal vesicles. The ejaculatory ducts
empty into the urethra.
• Urethra: The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the
bladder to outside of your body. In males, it has the additional
function of expelling (ejaculating) semen when you reach
orgasm. When the penis is erect during sex, the flow of urine is
blocked from the urethra, allowing only semen to be
ejaculated at orgasm
 Seminal vesicles
• The seminal vesicles are sac-like pouches that
attach to the vas deferens near the base of the
bladder.

• The seminal vesicles make a sugar-rich fluid

(fructose) that provides sperm with a source of
energy and helps with the sperms’ ability to move
(motility).

• The fluid of the seminal vesicles makes up most of

the volume of your ejaculatory fluid, or ejaculate.
 Prostate gland
• The prostate gland is a walnut-sized structure that’s
located below the urinary bladder in front of the
rectum.

• The prostate gland contributes additional fluid to

the ejaculate. Prostate fluids also help to nourish
the sperm.

• The urethra, which carries the ejaculate to be

expelled during orgasm, runs through the center of
the prostate gland
• It is found in the pelvic cavity, below the lower
part of the symphysis pubis, above the
superior fascia of the urogenital diaphragm
and in front of the rectum.

• It is about the size of a chestnut and

somewhat conical in shape with three zones
 Some structures around the prostate

• Seminal vesicles – These glands produce semen and are

located on both sides of the prostate.

• Vas deferens – These tubes carry sperm from the testicles to

the seminal vesicles.

• Nerve bundles – These nerves control bladder and erectile

function and are found on both sides of the prostate.

• Muscles – These muscles control urination.

 Bulbourethral glands
• The bulbourethral glands, or Cowper’s glands,
are pea-sized structures located on the sides of
the urethra, just below the prostate gland.

• These glands produce a clear, slippery fluid that

empties directly into the urethra.

• This fluid serves to lubricate the urethra and to

neutralize any acidity that may be present due
to residual drops of urine in the urethra.
female reproductive systems
 female reproductive systems

• The organs and structures of the female reproductive

system give women the ability to produce a baby.

• They do this by producing eggs to be fertilized by

sperm from a man.

• They also provide a place for the baby (fetus) to grow

and develop.

• Other structures such as the breasts give the mother

the ability to feed and nourish a baby after birth.
• The organs of the female reproductive system
are found both inside and outside of the
female body.

• The organs inside the body are in the pelvis or

pelvic region, which is the lowest part of the
body cavity above the legs.
The organs found inside the body include:

• Vagina - the area between the lower part of the womb

(the cervix) and the outside of the body. The vagina
receives the penis during sexual intercourse and is a
passageway for childbirth.

• Womb (uterus) - a hollow, pear-shaped organ that is

the home to a developing fetus. The uterus is divided
into two parts: the cervix, which is the lower part that
opens into the vagina, and the main body of the uterus,
called the corpus. The corpus can easily expand to hold
a developing baby. A channel through the cervix allows
sperm to enter and menstrual blood to exit.
• Ovaries - small, oval-shaped glands that are located
on either side of the uterus. The ovaries produce eggs
(ova - an ovum is one egg, ova means multiple eggs.)
The ovaries also produce the main female sex
hormones which are released into the bloodstream.

• Uterine (Fallopian) tubes - narrow tubes that are

attached to the upper part of the uterus. They serve
as tunnels for the ova to travel from the ovaries to the
uterus. The fertilization of an egg by a sperm
(conception) normally occurs in the uterine tubes.
The fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where it
implants into the lining of the uterine wall
• The outside (external) structures of the
female reproductive system are grouped
together in an area called the vulva.

• They are located just outside the opening of

the vagina. This includes structures such as
the labia, the clitoris and a number of glands.

• The breasts can also be considered part of the

female reproductive system and are located
on the chest.
The vulva consists of:
• The labia - skin flaps or folds on either side of the opening
of the vagina. There are two layers of these skin folds. The
outer ones are called the labia majora and are covered with
pubic hair after puberty. The inner folds do not have hair
and are called the labia minora.

• The mons pubis - the fatty bulge above the labia which is
covered with hair after puberty.

• The vaginal opening (meatus) - the entrance to the vagina.

• The urethral opening (meatus) - the end of the tube which

carries urine from the bladder to the outside (urethra).
• The clitoris - a lump of tissue at the top of the
labia. This becomes full of blood during sexual
excitement. The clitoris is very sensitive and is
the main source of female sexual pleasure.

• The Bartholin's glands (or vestibular glands) -

glands on either side of the opening of the
vagina. These produce a sticky substance to
moisten (lubricate) the vagina for sexual
intercourse.
 The mammary glands

Structure

• The structure of the female breast is complex, within it there is fat

and connective tissue, as well as lobes, lobules, ducts and lymph
nodes.

• The breast lies over a muscle of the chest known as the pectoral
muscle. The female breast covers a large area; it extends from just
below the collarbone (clavicle), to the armpit (axilla) and across to
the breastbone (sternum).

• The breast is a mass of glandular, fatty and connective tissue.

Developmental Biology and the genetic basis of
man
 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
• The growth of a fertilized egg into a human individual

• During the 40 weeks of gestation, the embryo-fetus is

protected and nourished in the uterus of the mother.

• A human being begins life as one cell, a fertilized egg

called a zygote, which develops into an individual
human being consisting of billions of cells organized
into the body systems.
 FERTILIZATION
• It is the union of the nuclei of egg and sperm; usually takes place
in the fallopian tube.

• Sperm undergo final maturation (capacitation) within the female

reproductive tract; the acrosome contains enzymes to digest the
membrane of the ovum.

• The 23 chromosomes of the sperm join with the 23

chromosomes of the egg to restore the diploid number of 46 in
the zygote.

• A zygote has 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex

chromosomes; XX in females, XY in males
 Inheritance of gender.

• Each ovum contains 22 autosomes and an X

chromosome.

• Each sperm contains 22 autosomes and either

an X chromosome or a Y chromosome
 IMPLANTATION
• Fertilization usually takes place within the fallopian tube, and the
zygote begins to divide even as it is being swept toward the uterus.

• Within the fallopian tube, the zygote begins mitotic divisions called
cleavage to form two-cell, four-cell, eight-cell stages, and so on.

• A morula is a solid sphere of cells that divides further to form a hollow

sphere called a blastocyst.

• A blastocyst consists of an outer layer of cells called the trophoblast

and an inner cell mass that contains the potential embryo; the cells are
stem cells, not yet specialized.

• The trophoblast secretes enzymes to form a crater in the

Ovulation, fertilization, and early embryonic development
 EMBRYO AND EMBRYONIC
MEMBRANES
An embryo is the developing human individual from
the time of implantation until the eighth week of
gestation.

1. In the embryonic disc, three primary germ layers

develop: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm

2. By the eighth week of gestation (end of 2

months), all organ systems are formed
• Ecto means “outer”; the epidermis is derived
from ectoderm, and in some of these cells the
gene for producing keratin is active.

• Meso means “middle”; the skeletal muscles

develop from mesoderm, and in these cells
the genes for producing myosin and actin are
active.

• Endo means “inner”; the stomach lining is

derived from endoderm, and in these cells,
the gene for producing pepsinogen is active.
 Embryonic Membranes
• The yolk sac forms the first blood cells and the cells
that become spermatogonia or oogonia.

• The amnion surrounds the fetus and contains amniotic

fluid; this fluid absorbs shock around the fetus.

• The chorion develops chorionic villi that will contain

blood vessels that form the fetal portion of the
placenta. (The chorionic villi in the placenta are
responsible for the regulation of fetal oxygen and
nutrient transport).
 Fetus
The weeks 9 through 40 of gestation

1. The organ systems grow and mature.

2. The growing fetus brings about structural and

functional changes in the mother.
 Placenta and Umbilical Cord
• The placenta is formed by the chorion of the embryo and the
endometrium of the uterus; the umbilical cord connects the
fetus to the placenta.

• [The placenta is an organ that develops in the uterus during

pregnancy. This structure provides oxygen and nutrients to the
growing baby and removes waste products from the baby's
blood by diffusion only. The placenta attaches to the wall of the
uterus, and the baby's umbilical cord arises from it.]

• Fetal blood does not mix with maternal blood; One of the
placenta's jobs is to make sure blood from the mother and fetus
never mixes to protect the baby against infection.
• Two umbilical arteries carry blood from the
fetus to the placenta; fetal CO₂ and waste
products diffuse into maternal blood; oxygen
and nutrients enter fetal blood.

• Umbilical vein returns blood from placenta to

fetus.

• The placenta is delivered after the baby and is

called the afterbirth.
 Placental Hormones
• hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)—this is a hormone
produced by the placenta of the pregnant woman. Early in
pregnancy, the level of hCG increases in the blood and is
eliminated in the urine. A pregnancy test detects hCG in the blood
or urine and confirms or rules out pregnancy.

• hCG maintains the corpus luteum so that it secretes estrogen and

progesterone during the first few months of gestation. The corpus
luteum is too small to secrete sufficient hormones to maintain a
full-term pregnancy.

• Estrogen and progesterone secretion begins within 4 to 6 weeks

and continues until birth in amounts great enough to sustain
pregnancy.
• Estrogen and progesterone inhibit FSH and LH
secretion during pregnancy and prepare the
mammary glands for lactation.

• Progesterone inhibits contractions of the

myometrium until just before birth, when
progesterone secretion begins to decrease.

• Relaxin (a hormone secreted by the placenta that

causes the cervix to dilate and prepares the uterus
for the action of oxytocin during labour) inhibits
contractions of the myometrium and permits
stretching of the pubic symphysis.
 Parturition/childbirth and Labor
• Gestation period ranges from 37 to 42 weeks;
the average is 40 weeks.

• Labor: first stage—dilation of the cervix;

uterine contractions force the amniotic sac
into the cervix; amniotic sac ruptures and fluid
escapes.
• Labor: second stage—delivery of the infant;
oxytocin causes more powerful contractions of
the myometrium. If a vaginal delivery is not
possible, a cesarean section may be performed.

• Labor: third stage—delivery of the placenta; the

uterus continues to contract to expel the
placenta, then contracts further, decreases in
size, and compresses endometrial blood
vessels.
 The Infant at Birth
• Umbilical cord is clamped and severed;
increased CO₂ stimulates breathing, and lungs
are inflated.

• Foramen ovale closes, and ductus arteriosus

constricts; ductus venosus constricts; normal
circulatory pathways are established.

• Jaundice may be present if the infant’s

immature liver cannot rapidly excrete bilirubin.