Department of Agricultural and Biosystems

Engineering
Landmark University, Omu-Aran
2024/ 2025 Session

Lecture Notes 4.
GET 205
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

Lecture slides by:

Engr. Dr. Olasehinde, D. A.
2
 1.1 Properties of Fluids
1. Density (ρ): The mass of fluid per unit volume.
SI unit: kg/m³.
2. Viscosity (μ): A measure of the fluid’s
resistance to flow. Fluids with higher viscosity
flow more slowly compared to fluids with lower
viscosity.
3. Pressure (P): The force exerted by the fluid per
unit area. SI unit: Pa (Pascal).
4. Temperature (T): Influences fluid density and
viscosity.
5. Surface Tension: The force per unit length on
the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an
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 1.0 Introduction
• Fluid Statics: The study of fluids at rest and
the forces and conditions associated with
stationary fluids.
• The physical characteristics of static or
stationary fluids and some of the laws that
govern their behavior are the topics of this
chapter.
• It is particularly important in understanding the
behavior of liquids in pipes, reservoirs, and
other closed systems.

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Pressure in a Static Fluid
• Pressure (P) is defined as
the normal force (F) per unit
area (A)
(1 Pa =1
N/m2)
• The pressure unit pascal is
too small for pressures
encountered in practice.
Therefore, its multiples
kilopascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa)
and megapascal(1 MPa =
106 Pa) are commonly used.
• A given force can have
different effect, depending 5
Example 1
• An astronaut is working
outside the International
Space Station where the
atmospheric pressure is
essentially zero.
• The pressure gauge on her
air tank reads 6.9 *106 Pa.
• What force does the air
inside the tank exert on the
flat end of the cylindrical
tank, a disk 0.150 m in
diameter? 6
 Solution
If:
Then: F = P *A
F = (6.90× 106 Pa)* (3.14 * 0.0750m 2)
= 1.22×10 N
Wow! No wonder the tank must be strong.

Note: the force exerted pressure is directly

proportional to the area acted upon as well as the
pressure itself.
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• The force exerted on the end of
the tank is perpendicular to its
inside surface.
• This direction is because the
force is exerted by a static or
stationary fluid. We have already
seen that fluids cannot withstand
shearing (sideways) forces; they
cannot exert shearing forces,
either.
• The molecules of the fluid simply
flow to accommodate the
horizontal force.
• If you try to compress a fluid, you
find that a reaction force
develops at each point inside the 8
Variation of Pressure with Depth in a Fluid
• When a fluid is at rest, any point within the fluid
experiences pressure due to the weight of the fluid
above it.
• This pressure varies directly with the depth below
the fluid's surface because as depth increases,
• more fluidatsits
For a point above
a depth thatthe
h below point, contributing
additional weight.
fluid's surface, the pressure P at that
point can be calculated using :
P=P0+ρgh
• where:
• P is the pressure at depth h,
• P0 ​is the pressure at the surface of the fluid (also known
as the reference pressure, which could be atmospheric
pressure if open to the air),
• ρ is the density of the fluid (constant for incompressible
9
fluids like liquids),
• g is the gravitational acceleration,
Derivation of hydrostatic Formula

column with a cross-sectional area 𝐴 and height

• Consider a fluid element in the shape of a vertical

ℎ. The weight 𝑊 of this column of fluid is given

by:
W = ρgAh
• The pressure exerted by the fluid at the bottom of
this column (at depth ℎ) is defined as the force
per unit area:

• Since the force F is the weight W of the fluid

column, we can substitute to get:
= ρgh
• Adding the pressure at the surface, P 0​, we obtain:
P=P0+ρghP 10
Implications of Pressure Variation
with Depth
• Linearly Increasing Pressure: In an
incompressible fluid, pressure increases linearly
with dept, as both ρ (density) and g (gravitational
acceleration) are constant.
• Independent of Container Shape: Pressure at
a given depth depends only on the height of the
fluid above that point, not the shape or volume of
the container.
• Absolute vs. Gauge Pressure: The pressure
calculated using ρgh is often called gauge
pressure (the pressure relative to atmospheric
pressure). Adding P0 absolute pressure (the
total pressure at depth h including atmospheric
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pressure).
Applications in Engineering
• This pressure-depth relationship is critical in
applications such as:
i. Design of dams: The increasing pressure with
depth affects the dam’s structural requirements.
ii. Diving: Pressure increases significantly with
depth, influencing equipment design and safety
considerations.
iii. Atmospheric science: Although air is
compressible, a similar concept applies to
pressure variation with altitude in the
atmosphere.
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 Example 2
• A tank is filled with water to a
height of 5 meters. The tank is
open to the atmosphere at the
top, where the atmospheric
pressure is 101,325 Pa (or
101.3 kPa).
1.Determine the pressure at
a point located 3 meters
below the surface of the
water.
2.Find the pressure at the
bottom of the tank.
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Solution
Given:
• Density of water, ρ=1000 kg/m3
• Gravitational acceleration, g=9.81 m/s2

• Atmospheric pressure 𝑃0=101,325 Pa

• Depth ℎ=3 m

1. Ρgh =1000 × 9.81 × 3 = 29,430Pa

P = P0​+ ρgh
= 101,325 +29,430 = 130,755Pa
= 130.76kPa
2. Ρgh =1000 × 9.81 × 5 = 49,050Pa
P = P0​+ ρgh
= 101,325+49,050=150,375Pa

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This illustrates how pressure increases with depth
Pascal’s Principle
• Can pressure be increased in a
fluid by pushing directly on the
fluid? Yes…. if the fluid is
enclosed.
• If you try to push on a fluid in an
open system, such as a river,
the fluid flows away but an
enclosed fluid cannot flow away,
and so pressure can be
increased.. "A change in
• Since atoms in a fluid are free to pressure applied
move about, they transmit the to an enclosed
pressure to all parts of the fluid fluid is
and to the walls of the container. transmitted
Remarkably, the pressure is undiminished to
transmitted undiminished. every part of the
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Relationship Between Forces in a Hydraulic System
• We can derive a relationship between the forces in
the simple hydraulic system shown in the Figure
above by applying Pascal’s principle. Note first that
the two pistons in the system are at the same
height, and so there will be no difference in
pressure due to a difference in depth.
• Now the pressure P1 due to F1 acting on area A1 is ,
• According to Pascal’s principle, this pressure is
transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid and
to all walls of the container.
• Thus, a pressure P2 is felt at the other piston that is
equal to P1 (P1=P2)
• Since ,

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• This equation relates the ratios of force to area
in any hydraulic system, providing the pistons
are at the same vertical height and that friction
in the system is negligible.
• Hydraulic systems can increase or decrease the
force applied to them.
• To make the force larger, the pressure is applied
to a larger area.
• For example, if a 100-N force is applied to the
left cylinder in Figure and the right one has an
area five times greater, then the force out is 500
N.

17
Example 3
• A hydraulic lift has an input piston with an
area of 5 cm2 and an output piston with an
area of 75 cm2.
• If a force of 150 N is applied to the input
piston, calculate the output force generated
on the larger piston.

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 Solution
1.Given:
 F1=150 N
 A1=5 cm2
 A2=75 cm2
Using Pascal’s Principle:
,

=2250 N
• Thus, the output force is 2250 N.

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 Gauge Pressure, Absolute Pressure,
and Pressure Measurement
• If you limp into a gas station with a
nearly flat tire, you will notice the
tire gauge on the airline reads
nearly zero when you begin to fill
it.
• In fact, if there were a gaping hole
in your tire, the gauge would read
zero, even though atmospheric
pressure exists in the tire.
• Why does the gauge read zero?
• Tire gauges are simply designed to
read zero at atmospheric pressure
and positive when pressure is 20
greater than atmospheric.
• Similarly, since atmospheric pressure adds to
blood pressure in every part of the circulatory
system. (the total pressure in a fluid is the sum of
the pressures from different sources—here, the
heart and the atmosphere.)
• What is important is how much greater blood
pressure is than atmospheric pressure.
• Hence, pressure gauges often ignore atmospheric
pressure—that is, to read zero at atmospheric
pressure. We therefore define
• Absolute Pressure (Pabs): The true pressure
relative to a vacuum.
• Gauge Pressure (Pg): The pressure relative to
atmospheric pressure.
• Vacuum Pressure: Negative gauge pressure, or
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pressure below atmospheric pressure ( Patm).
 Pressure Measurement Instruments
• Consider the U-shaped tube shown in below. This
simple tube is called a manometer.
• In Figure(a), both sides of the tube are open to the
atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure therefore pushes
down on each side equally so its effect cancels.
• If the fluid is deeper on one side, there is a greater
pressure on the deeper side, and the fluid flows
away from that side until the depths are equal.
• .

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• Let us examine how a manometer is used to
measure pressure. Suppose one side of the U-tube
is connected to some source of pressure Pabs such
as the toy balloon in Figure(b), or the vacuum-
packed peanut jar shown in Figure(c).
• Pressure is transmitted undiminished to the
manometer, and the fluid levels are no longer
equal.
• In Figure(b), is greater than atmospheric pressure,
whereas in Figure(c), is less than atmospheric
pressure.

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 Steps to Use a Mercury Manometer
1. Set Up the System:
Connect one side of the U-
tube to the system where
pressure is to be measured.
The other side is either open
to the atmosphere or
connected to a vacuum,
depending on whether gauge
or absolute pressure is
needed.
2. Observe the Mercury
Column Heights: When
pressure is applied, the
mercury level will shift, with 24
 Steps to Use a Mercury Manometer
3. Measure the Height Difference: Use a ruler or scale to
measure the height difference (ℎ) between the mercury
columns. This difference is directly proportional to the
pressure difference.
4. Calculate the Pressure: For gauge pressure (when the

𝑃gauge=⋅⋅ℎ
other end is open to the atmosphere):

where:
• ρ is the density of mercury (approximately 13,600 kg/m 3),
• g is the acceleration due to gravity,
• h is the height difference in the mercury columns (in
meters).

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Example 4
• Estimate the gauge pressure, suppose a gas
exerts pressure that creates a height
difference of 0.05 m (5 cm) in a mercury
manometer with the other side open to the
atmosphere.
Solution
Pgauge​ =13,600kg/m3 × 9.81m/s2 × 0.05m
=6,669Pa

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• Advantages of Mercury Manometers
i. High Density of Mercury: Due to its density,
even small height differences can correspond
to significant pressure values, allowing for
precise measurements.
ii. Temperature Stability: Mercury’s properties
remain relatively stable with temperature
changes, reducing errors in measurement.
• Limitations
i. Mercury Hazards: Mercury is toxic, so
precautions are necessary to avoid spills and
exposure.
ii. Limited Range: While precise, mercury
manometers are generally limited to 27
measuring relatively low pressures due to the
• Mercury manometers are often
used to measure arterial blood
pressure.
• An inflatable cuff is placed on the
upper arm as shown in Figure.
• By squeezing the bulb, pressure is
exerted which is transmitted
undiminished to both the main
artery in the arm and the
manometer.
• When the applied pressure exceeds
blood pressure, blood flow below
the cuff is cut off. (systolic
pressure)
• The person making the
measurement then slowly lowers 28

the applied pressure and listens for

• Systolic pressure is measured by noting the height of
the Mercury in the Column when blood flow first
begins as cuff pressure is lowered while Diastolic
pressure is measured by noting when blood flows
without interruption.
• The typical blood pressure of a young adult raises the
mercury to a height of 120 mm at systolic and 80 mm
at diastolic.
• This is commonly quoted as 120 over 80, or 120/80.
• The first pressure is representative of the maximum
output of the heart; the second is due to the elasticity
of the arteries in maintaining the pressure between
beats.

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Example 5
• Intravenous infusions are usually made with
the help of the gravitational force.
• Assuming that the density of the fluid being
administered is 1.00 g/ml, at what height
should the IV bag be placed above the entry
point so that the fluid just enters the vein if
the blood pressure in the vein is 18 mm Hg
above atmospheric pressure?
• Assume that the IV bag is collapsible.

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Solution
• Density of IV fluid (ρ): 1.00 g/mL=1000 kg/m3
• Blood pressure in the vein: 18 mm Hg18mm Hg
• Acceleration due to gravity (g): 9.81 m/s
Step 1: Convert Blood Pressure to Pascals
18 mm Hg =18×133.322 Pa =2399.796 Pa

𝑃=𝜌⋅𝑔⋅ℎ
Step 2: Apply the Hydrostatic Pressure Equation

Since the pressure due to the fluid column needs

𝜌⋅𝑔⋅ℎ=2399.796 Pa
to equal the blood pressure in the vein,

Therefore:

=0.239m
The IV bag should be placed approximately 0.245 meters
(or 24.5 cm) above the entry point to ensure that the fluid
just enters the vein under the given conditions. 31