EMG 2303:Solids and Structural

Mechanics I
Course Outline
Concepts of stress and strain: Definition of stress and strain, components of stress,
direct strain, true stress and true strain. Stress and strain in simple shear; elastic stress-
strain relationships in simple shear. Behavior of materials under static loading: The
tensile test; load extension diagram; the stress-strain diagram and Engineering
properties of materials, Linear elasticity and Hooke’s law, elastic limit, 0.2% proof stress,
ultimate strength, secant and tangent modulus, stress hysteresis, toughness, ductility,
brittleness, upper and lower yield points, allowable or working stress, safety factor.
Tension instability. Elastic constants; Young’s modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio,
relationships between elastic constants. Volumetric strain. Analysis of design in simple
tension and compression: Deflection of axially loaded structures, members with variable
cross-sections, composite members, non-uniform stresses and strains, impact loading.
Thermal stresses and strains. Statically indeterminate axial members. Analysis of thin-
walled pressure vessels: Hoop and longitudinal stresses and strains for cylinder and
sphere, volumetric strain, bulk modulus of contained fluid, and pressure effects. Elastic
torsion analysis: The torsion test, solid and hollow circular shafts, shear stresses, power
transmission and design of shafts, coupling design, shafts of varying cross-section,
composite shafts. Torsion stiffness. Pure shear. Analysis of statically indeterminate
shafts. Application to close-coiled helical springs. Bending of beams: Simply supported
beams and cantilevers. Concentrated loads, distributed loads and couples. Reactions at
supports; shear force and bending moment and their importance for analysis and
design. Qualitative and quantitative sketching of shear force and bending moment
diagrams.
 Chapter Coverage
1. Stress and Strain
2. Structures - Analysis of pin-jointed frames
3. Analysis of thin-walled pressure vessels (cylinders and spheres) -
Hoop and longitudinal stresses and stains, Volumetric strains
4. Torsion in shafts and thin-walled tubes
5. Analysis of close coiled helical springs.
6. Thermal stresses and strains.
7. Simple bending of beams
8. Shear force and bending moment diagrams

• Practicals
• 1. Tensile test.
• 2. Torsion test
 Chapter 1
• Introduction
• Solid and structural mechanics is a branch of applied mechanics
that deals with the study of the structures and the machine
members under the action of external forces, taking into account
the internal forces created and the resulting deformation.
• The principal objective of Solid and Structural mechanics is to
determine the stresses, strains and displacements in structures
and machine members due to the loads acting on them, and
subsequently determine the limiting load which the member can
stand before failure (excessive deformation) of the material
occurs.
• The skills learned in Solids and Structural Mechanics units (which
are design units) have a wide application in design of Machine
members and elements, and generally mechanical systems.
 Examples
• To design a shaft for power transmission in a machine, one needs to know the
maximum shearing and direct stresses on the shaft during operation due to
torque transmitted and the bending of the shaft respectively. This information
helps in proper sizing of the shaft to ensure that the shaft is not oversized and
cant fail during the operation.

• To properly design a robotic manipulator, one needs to know stresses on each

link due to the load transmission. This information helps in proper sizing of the
manipulator to ensure that no link is oversized or can fail during operation.
• Nowadays robots can be actuated using hydraulic power, hence involving
hydraulic cylinders. Therefore to properly design a hydraulic cylinder to actuate a
robotic link, one needs to know the maximum stress which can be induced on a
cylinder by the internal hydraulic pressure.

• just to mention but a few.

 Chapter 2: Stress and Strain
2.1 Tensile and compressive stresses
• When a load is applied to a member of a
machine or structure, the material distorts.
• The stress intensity (the load transmitted per
unit area of cross section) is the intensity of the
internal forces produced on the material, and
the strain is the measure of the resulting
distortion.
• Consider a prismatic bar shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Stress-strain concepts
 Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F

Area, A Area, A Fs

Fs
Ft
F
t= s F Ft
Ft lb f N
s= = 2
or 2 Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading  Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf/in2
 Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s= s s
Ao
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches s= structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (s < 0 here).
 2.1 Tensile and compressive stresses
• Let;
• F =the axial force applied at the ends of the bar.
• δ= the increase in length.
• Lo =the original length of the bar.
• d = the diameter of the bar.

• The weight of the bar is neglected and it is assumed that the

only active forces are the axial forces at the ends of the bar.
• The intensity of the force (stress, denoted as ) is the force per
unit area,

Equation 2.1 is valid only if the force is uniformly distributed over the
entire cross section. This condition is realized if the axial force acts
through the centroid of the cross section.
 2.1 Tensile and compressive stresses

• The units of stress are N/m2(Pa), but since the

values of stress are large N/mm2(MPa) are usually
used.
• If the force F stretches the member, then the stress
is called tensile stress and is positive. If the force F
compresses the member, then the stress is called
compressive stress and is negative.
• Since these stresses act in a direction
perpendicular to the cross section, they are called
normal stresses.
 2.1 Tensile and compressive stresses

• The bar in Figure 2.1 will change in length when loaded axially,
becoming longer when stretched and shorter when
compressed. Strain (ε) is defined as the change in length per
unit length.

• Similarly, when F stretches the bar we have tensile strain which

is positive, but when F compresses the bar we have
compressive strain which is negative. Strain is dimensionless
quantity although for clarity, units like m/m, mm/m or μm/m
are used.
 2.1 Tensile and compressive stresses
Examples 2.1
• Suppose the bar in Figure 2.1 has a diameter d=50mm
and original length Lo = 2.0m. When the load F = 27 x
103N is applied axially, the bar elongates by 1:4mm.
Calculate the normal stress and strain in the bar.
• Solution: Using equation 2.1, stress in the bar is;

• Using equation 2.2, strain in the bar is;

 2.1 Tensile and compressive stresses
• A circular steel rod of length L and diameter d Examples 2.2
hangs in a mine shaft and holds an ore bucket of
weight W at its lower end as shown in Figure. (a)
Obtain a formula for the maximum stress max in
the rod taking into account the weight of the rod.
(b) Hence or otherwise, calculate the maximum
stress if L = 40m, d = 8mm, W = 1.5kN and the mass
density of the steel is γ= 7.85 x 103Kg/m3.

Solution: (a) The maximum axial force Fmax in the rod

occurs at the upper end and is equal to;

where Wr is the weight of the rod itself and is given by;

In which A is the cross sectional area of the rod. Therefore using equation 2.1 the maximum
stress becomes,
 2.1 Tensile and compressive stresses

Examples 2.2..continued

• (b) To calculate the maximum stress, we substitute

numerical values to the equation above, thus
 2.2 Engineering stress and true stress

• Consider a prismatic bar which is stretched until it breaks. In this

case the stretching load F will increase until necking begins, after
which it will decrease until the specimen fails.
• The engineering stress (σeng) is defined as the instantaneous load
divided by the original area of the cross section, that is,

• Therefore the σeng decreases after the formation of the neck.

 2.2 Engineering stress and true stress
• On contrary the actual
σ − ε curve shows a
continuous increase in
stress even after
necking. This is because
the true stress (σt) at
any instant is obtained
by dividing the
instantaneous load by
the actual area of cross
section at that point,
that is,
 2.3 Engineering strain and true strain
• Engineering strain is defined as;

• Equation above assumes that the deformation is uniform over

specimen length and throughout the loading process. For ductile
materials, the deformation is non-uniform over the specimen length
beyond the elastic limit due to the necking phenomena.
• Therefore the definition in equation 2.5 losses meaning in this case.
In its place, true strain (εt) is defined for incremental extension over
the original length as
 2.3 Engineering strain and true strain

• Due to volume consistency AoLo = AfLf, equation 2.6

becomes,

• Assignment: For a circular cross section show that

the true strain can be given as,
 2.3 Engineering strain and true strain

• Note: εeng and εt can be related as follows,

 2.4 Shear Stress and strain
If a piece of material is subjected to equal and opposite forces F which produces a
state of shear as shown in Figure 2.2, then the shear stress is defined as the
shearing force divided by the cross sectional area of the plane parallel to the force.

Figure 2.2: Shear stress and strain

Therefore, shear stress (τ ) is

• Shear stress: drive shaft

Fs
t=
Ao

• Shear strain:
q
x g = Dx/y = tan q

y 90º - q
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
 2.4 Shear Stress and strain
If the deformation in the direction of F is x, then the shear strain can be
obtained as,

where c is the perpendicular distance between the applied forces. Since x/c is
very small then equation 2.10 can be written as,

Therefore shear strain (Φ) is shown to be the change of right angle in a body when a
shearing force is applied.
 2.4.1 Equality of shear stresses on perpendicular planes
Lets consider a small element of material in shear in a form of a cube of unit thickness
as shown in Figure 2.3.
The prefix convention of the shear
stresses is ab where a is the axis
perpendicular to the stress and b is the
axis in the direction of the stress.

There are three pairs of complimentary

shear stresses: (τxy, τyx), (τxz, τzx) and (τyz,
τzy).

If we consider (τxy and τyx), then

summing the moments about the
origin, we have;
Figure 2.3: Small element of material
subjected to shear stresses and strains

Similarly
2.4.2. Sign conventions for shear stresses and strains

• A shear stress acting on a positive face of an element is

positive if it acts in the positive direction of an axis and
negative if it acts in a negative direction of an axis.
• A shear stress acting on a negative face of an element is
positive if it acts in the negative direction of an axis and
negative if it acts in a positive direction of an axis.
• A shear strain in an element is positive when the angle
between two positive faces (or two negative faces) is reduced.
• A shear strain in an element is negative when the angle
between two positive faces (or two negative faces) is
increased.
 2.5 Poisson’s ratio

• When a material is exposed to a longitudinal load, it experiences

both longitudinal and transverse strains. For instance when a
prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation is
accompanied by lateral contraction (that is contraction normal to
the direction of applied load). This change in shape is depicted in
the figure 2.4. The ratio of the lateral strain (εl) to the axial strain (εa)
is known as Poisson's ratio (ν), thus

Figure 2.4: Axial elongation and lateral contraction of a bar in tension

 2.6 Volumetric strain

Since the dimensions of a bar in tension or compression changes when the load is
applied, the volume of the bar changes too. The change in volume divided by the
initial volume is called the volumetric strain (εv).

Consider a small element of an isotropic material cut from a bar in tension,

Original volume of the cuboid is,
Vo = xyz

If the changes in the axial dimensions are δx, δy and

δz for x, y and z dimensions, then the final volume of
the cuboid is,
Vf = (x + δx)(y + δy )(z + δz )

Therefore the volumetric strain is,

Figure 2.5: Volumetric strain

 2.6 Volumetric strain

• Expanding equation 2.16 and ignoring products

of small quantities, we have,
 2.7 Tensile test

• This is a very common laboratory experiment of

determining mechanical properties of materials.
• The test specimen is installed between the two
large grips of the testing machine and then loaded
in tension until failure. The machine automatically
tabulates and graphs the results in form of load-
extension curve.
• Variables such as strain, stress, elasticity, tensile
strength, ductility etc can be measured
• Test specimens can be round or flat.
Tensile Testing Machine
 2.7.1 Stress-Strain curve
• Tensile test results depend upon the size and material of the
specimen being tested.
• It is unlikely that we will design a structural or machine member with
same size with the test specimens. Therefore we need to express the
test results in a form that can be applied to members of any size. This
is achieved simply by converting the results into stress and strains at
various magnitudes of the load then plotting a diagram of stress
versus strain.
• Such a stress-strain curve is a property of the particular material
being tested and conveys important information about the
mechanical properties of the material.
• The resulting stress-strain curve depends on the following factors;
brittleness or ductility of the material, whether true stresses/strains
or engineering stresses/strains are used.
• A ductile material such as mild steel in tension have stress-strain
curves as shown in the figure 2.6.
 2.7.1 Stress-Strain curve
Region OA: The curve begins
with a straight line from the
origin O to point A, meaning
that the relationship between
stress and strain in this region
is linear. This is the linear elastic
region and deformations are
recoverable upon load removal.
Hooke’s law is obeyed and the
slope of the curve at this region
is the Modulus of Elasticity of
the material.

Figure 2.6: Stress-strain curve for a ductile material

Region AB: This is the yielding region. Point A marks the elastic limit also called Upper
Yield Point and there is sudden drop in stress with further strain. Point B is the Lower
Yield Point and there is a marked extension at almost constant load.
 2.7.1 Stress-Strain curve
Region BC: Once the yield region
has been passed, an increasing
stress is required to cause a
continued straining, and this
behavior is called work-hardening
or strain hardening and the metal
in fact becomes harder. The rate
of increase of stress is large than
the rate of increase of strain. This
region is called plastic region and
the resulting deformation is not
recoverable. The strain energy
stored in a specimen over the
plastic region is the toughness of
the material. Figure 2.6: Stress-strain curve for a ductile material
Point C: This is called the Ultimate Tensile Strength and represents the maximum
stress the specimen can withstand before necking starts.
Region CD: After necking kicks off, further stretching of the specimen is
accompanied by a reduction in the load, and fracture finally occurs at point D.
 2.7.1 Stress-Strain curve

• After point C the

reduction in area of the
specimen becomes
clearly visible and a
pronounced necking of
the specimen occurs. If
the actual cross section
area is used to calculate
stress, the true stress-
true strain curve
(dashed curve) is
obtained.
Figure 2.6: Stress-strain curve for a ductile material
 2.7.2 Proof stress
When a material does not show a well defined stress in tension or compression, the proof
stress is required. Its obtained by drawing a line parallel to the linear elastic region of the curve
at the appropriate strain of usually 0:1%.

Proof stress is defined as the stress required to produced a permanent strain of 0:001
on the removal of stress.

Figure 2.7: Proof stress at 0:1% strain

 2.7.3 Tangent modulus

• When there is no well

defined linear region in a
stress-strain curve, a
tangent modulus is used.
• A tangent modulus is
defined as the slope of a
straight line that is
tangent to the stress- Figure 2.8: Tangent modulus
strain curve at the origin.
 2.7.4 Secant modulus

• In practice, obtaining a
tangent modulus involves
considerable use of
judgement, so this is not a
well defined property.
• Secant modulus is defined by
drawing a line from the point
of 0.3% permanent strain,
and where the line cuts the
curve is joined to the origin
and the slope of the resulting
Figure 2.9: Secant modulus
line gives the secant modulus.
 2.7.5 Working stresses and factor of safety

• The working stress in a material is the stress the material

carries under normal working condition.
• In design, the maximum allowable working stress on a
material is usually less than the stress at yield point
(where the material suddenly becomes plastic) to allow
for overloading, non-uniformity of stress distribution,
shock loadings, faults in material and workmanship, etc.
• The ratio of the yield stress (σY ) to the maximum working
stress (σwmax ) is called the factor of safety (nsf ),
 2.8 Elastic constants
• Many structural materials behave both elastic and linear
behavior when first loaded. This means that their stress-strain
curves begin with a straight line passing through the origin.
• When a material behaves elastically and also have a linear
relationship between stress and strain, it is said to be linearly
elastic.
• This type of behavior is important in engineering, since by
designing structural and machine members to operate in this
region we avoid permanent deformations due to yielding.
• In the elastic region, three constants called elastic constants
are, Young's Modulus, Modulus of Rigidity and Bulk Modulus
 2.8.1 Young’s Modulus

• The linear relationship between the stress and strain for

a bar in simple tension or compression is given by,

Where σ is the axial stress, ε is the axial strain, and E is the constant of
proportionality called the Young's Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity of
the material.

The modulus of elasticity is the slope of stress-strain diagram in the

linearly elastic region. From equation 2.19 we have,

Since the strain is dimensionless, then the units of the E are N/m2.
 2.8.2 Modulus of Rigidity
• A relationship between shear stress and shear strain may be obtained
from a torsion test on a cylindrical bar in which applied torques and
angular twists are measured.
• Shear stress is proportional to the shear strain within the elastic limit,
that is,

Where τ is the shear stress, Φ is the shear strain, and G is the

constant of proportionality called the Modulus of Rigidity of the
material.
From equation 2.21 we have,

Since the strain is dimensionless, then the units of the G are N/m2.
 2.8.3 Bulk Modulus
• When a material is under the
action of three equal normal
stresses in three mutually
perpendicular directions, then this
is termed as hydrostatic stress.
• For hydrostatic stress, Figure 2.10: Hydrostatic stress

The hydrostatic stress is directly proportional to volumetric strain

within the elastic limit, thus the constant of proportionality is
called Bulk Modulus (K),
2.9 Strain energy

• When a material is loaded it deforms and work is

done on it. This energy is stored in the material
and is recoverable when the material is unloaded
provided that the material remains elastic. This
energy is called strain energy.
• The ability of a material to absorb energy when it is
deformed elastically and release it when it is
unloaded is called resilience.
2.9.1 Strain energy in tension and compression
• Consider an axial load P applied
gradually to a tensile specimen
thereby producing an
extension . If a load-extension
curve is plotted for the elastic
region, then the work done on
deforming the material or strain
energy is represented by the
area under the curve, as shown
in Figure 2.11
Strain energy, U

Figure 2.11: Strain energy in tension or compression

From equation 2.1 P =δAo. Also from equation

2.2 and 2.19 we have δ = σLo/E. Therefore
equation 2.25 becomes,
 2.9.2 Strain energy in shear
• If we assume the load-extension curve in Figure
2.11 above to be for a specimen under shear
loading as shown in Figure 2.2, then the expression
for shear strain energy is obtained as,
 Examples 2.3

A tension specimen of circular cross section tapers uniformly from 20mm to

16mm diameter over a gauge length of 200mm. When an axial force of 40kN is
applied, the extension measured on this gauge length is 0:4mm.
(a) Find the modulus of elasticity of the material.
(b) Compare the strain energy in this specimen with that in a specimen of the
same material of uniform diameter 18mm carrying the same load.

Solution: (a) The specimen can be represented as shown in gure below,

Solution: (a)

Using similarity in triangles OAB and OCD,

Using similarity in triangles OAB and OXY ,

Stress on the element,

Solution: (a)
Extension on the element,

Total extension on the bar is,

Note that,

Therefore,
(b) From equation 2.25

Ratio of strain energy is,

 Assignment 1
1. A round bar of length L tapers uniformly from radius r1 at one end to radius r2 at the
other. Show that the extension produced by a tensile load P is,

where E is the Young's modulus of the material. If r2 = 2r1 compare this extension with
that of a uniform cylindrical bar having a radius equal to the mean radius of the tapered
bar.

2. Show that the volumetric strain of a bar of square cross sectional area undergoing axial
loading is given by,

where εx is the longitudinal strain and ν is the poisson's ratio.

 Assignment 1
3. A steel ball of radius r, has equal and parallel flats machined on opposite sides so that
the thickness across the faces is 1.6r. Show that the decrease in thickness when an axial
load W is applied to these faces is given by,

Hint;
 2.10 General stress-strained relations
• Consider an element of a material shown in Figure 2.12 subjected to an
uniaxial stress σx. The corresponding strain system is shown in the Figure
alongside.

Figure 2.12: Uniaxial stress and resulting strains

The uniaxial stress causes an axial strain in the direction of stress, and lateral strains in
the perpendicular directions. The lateral strains are obtained using the Poisson's ratio
as shown in equation 2.15.
• A triaxial state of stress σx, σy and σz is shown in Figure 2.13. The
resultant strains in the xyz-directions are shown in the Figure
alongside.

Figure 2.13: Tri-axial stress and resulting strains

The total strain in the x-direction is composed of the axial strain due to x, lateral strain
due to y and a further lateral strain due to z. Similarly for total strains in the other
directions.

Therefore,

There are no lateral strain associated with shear strains. Hence the shear
stresses and strains relate in the same way for both uniaxial and triaxial strain
systems, that is
 2.10.1 Relations of the elastic constants

The elastic constants (E, G and K)described in section 2.8 are not independent of each other,
and are related by the following equations,
• Examples 2.4
Proofs
• Show that E = 2G(1 + ν) for an elastic material.
• Solution: Consider an element of material subjected to a tensile
stress in one direction together with an equal compressive stress in
a mutually perpendicular direction. This is shown in Figure below

If the material is elastic, then εx and εy caused

by the direct stress , σ, are given as,
• If the sides of the element are of unit length, the work done in distorting
the element per unit volume is,

In the state of pure shearing under stresses τ =σ , the shearing strain is give
by,

and the work done per unit volume is,

Since the one state of stress is equivalent to the other, the values of work done are
equal,
Practice: During your revision
times of this unit, show that, for
an elastic material the other
two relations given by equations
2.32 and 2.33 holds.
 Examples
• Examples 2.5
• A bar 30cm long is 5cm square cross section for 12cm length, 2.5cm diameter
for 8cm length, and 4cm diameter for the remaining length. If a tensile force of
10kN is applied to the bar, calculate
• (i) Maximum and minimum stresses produced in the bar assuming uniform
distribution of load over the area.
• (ii) The total elongation of the bar given E = 210GN/m2.
• Solution: From the bar,

(i) The maximum and minimum stresses are,

(ii) Total elongation,
 Examples
• Examples 2.6
• A rectangular plate of uniform thickness has a strain gauge rosette bonded to one
surface at the center as shown in the Figure below. It is placed in a test rig which
can apply a biaxial force system along the plate edges. If the measured strains are
+0.0005 and 0.0007 in the x and y directions, (E = 208GN/m 2 and ν= 0.3), find
• (a) The corresponding stresses set up in the plate.
• (b) The strain through the plate thickness.
• Solution:
• (a) For biaxial stress system where z σz= 0 equations 2.28, and 2.29 become,

Solving the equations above simultaneously for x and y gives,

Which gives the stresses as,

(b) For biaxial stress system where σz = 0 equations 2.30 becomes,

which gives strain through the plate thickness as,

 Assignment 2
• 1. A tensile test has been carried out on a mild steel specimen 10mm thick and 50mm wide rectangular
cross section. An extensometer was attached over a 100mm gauge length and load extension readings
were obtained as follows:

• Plot load-extension diagram for specimen and determine: (a) Young's Modulus (b) Proportional limit
stress (c) Yield point stress (d) Ultimate tensile strength (e) Percentage elongation.
• 2. Figure below shows a round steel rod supported in a recess and surrounded by a
coaxial brass tube. The upper end of the rod is 0.1mm below that of the tube and
an axial load is applied to a rigid plate resting on the top of the tube.
• (i) Determine the magnitude of the maximum permissible load if the compressive
stress in the rod is not to exceed 110MN/m2 and that in the tube is not to exceed
80MN/m2.
• (ii) Find the amount by which the tube will be shortened if the compressive stress
in the tube is the same as that in the rod. Esteel = 200GN/m2 and Ebrass = 100GN/m2
 2.11 Tutorial 1
Q1 A square steel bar of 50mm side and 1m long is subjected to an axial force of
250kN. Determine the decrease in lateral dimensions due to this load given E =
200GPa and = 0:3. (ANS : 7.5 x10-3mm)
Q2 Show that the volumetric strain in an element subjected to a triaxial state of
stress is give by,

Q3 Determine the shear strain energy stored in a torsion tube subjected to a state of
constant shear stress of 80MN=m2 throughout the wall thickness. Use G = 85GN/m 2.
(ANS : 37.6KNm2/m3)

Q4 A piston of hydraulic ram is 40cm diameter and the piston rod has a diameter of
6cm. If the water pressure is 1MN/m2 determine,
(a) The stress in the piston rod. (ANS : 43.5MN/m2)
(b) The elongation of a 1m length of the piston rod. (ANS : 2.8 x 10 -4m)
when the ram is under pressure from the piston rod side. (Take E = 200GN/m2)
Q5 A straight steel bar 1m long and of uniform cross section rotates at
2500rev=min about an axis at mid-length perpendicular to the length of
the bar. Find the maximum stress and total extension if E = 200GN/m2 and
steel density is 7.8 x103Kg/m3.

Q6 The maximum safe compressive stress in a hardened steel punch is

limited to 1GN/m2 and the punch is used to pierce circular holes in mild
steel 20mm thick.
(a) If the ultimate shearing stress of the plate is 300MN/m2, calculate the
smallest
diameter of the hole that can be pierced. (ANS : 24mm)
(b) If the effective length of the punch is 75mm, calculate the maximum
strain energy
stored in the punch during the piercing operation. Assume the modulus of
elasticity
for the material of punch to be 200GN/m2. (ANS : 84.8J)
Q7 A at steel bar 10m long and 10mm thick tapers from 60mm at one end to 20mm
at the other. Determine the change in length of the bar when a tensile force P =
12kN is acting along its axis if E = 200GN/m2. (ANS : 1.648mm)

Q8 Calculate the overall change in length

of the tapered rod shown in Figure
below. It carries a tensile load of 10kN at
the free end, and at the step change in
section a compressive load of 2MN/m
evenly distributed around a circle of
30mm diameter. Assume E = 208GPa.
(ANS : -0.035mm).
 Chapter 3

Analysis of Structures
3.1 Introduction

• Structural mechanics is generally concerned

with analyzing the effects of applied loads on
a structure. The applied loads are external to
the material of a structure and result in
internal reacting forces, together with
deformations and displacements.
Principles of statics which involves the concept
of equilibrium of forces is essential.
3.1.1 Overview of statics

• A particle is in state of equilibrium if the resultant force and moment acting on

it are zero, and therefore according to Newton’s law of motion, it will have no
acceleration and will be at rest.
• Therefore a structure is in equilibrium if the resultant of external forces and
moments are zero. This can be expressed in the following equations which are
necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium of a body,

• where Fx, Fy and Fz represent the components of force vectors in the x, y and z
directions respectively. Also Mx, My and Mz are the components of moment
vectors caused by the external forces acting in the x, y and z directions
respectively.
• Forces and moments are vector quantities and may be resolved into
components. Con- sider firstly a 2-D case,
•
3.1.2 Types of structural and solid body components

1. Tie: A slender member which prevents two parts of a structure from moving
apart and it is under tensile force.
2. Strut: A slender member which prevents two parts of a structure from moving
towards each other and is under compressive force.
3. Column: A vertical member which supports some of the mass of the structure.
4. Cable: Flexible string under tension which connects two bodies. It can not
supply resistance to bending action.
5. Beam: A member supported horizontally and carries transverse loading. A
com- mon special case is termed as a cantilever where one end is fixed and
provides all the necessary support.
6. Beam-column: Combines the separate functions of a beam and a column.
7. Shaft: A member which transmits torque and twist.

• The members described above can have a variety of

cross-sectional shapes, some of which are illustrated in
figure 3.5,
3.1.3 Types of support for structural components
3.2 Pin-jointed frames

3.2.1 Statically determinacy

Determination of Axial forces in a frame
Examples
Examples
Examples
Examples
Chapter 4
Stress and Strain Types
Examples
Chapter 5
Shear Stress Due Twisting
Torsion of a solid Shaft
Torsion of a hollow shaft
Torsion in composite & non-uniform shafts.
Torsion of a tapered shaft
Tutorials
Chapter 6
Maximum Shear Stress & Strain Energy
Chapter 7
Examples