CHAPTER VII
INTRODUCTION TO
ECOLOGY
What is ecology?
-Greek Oikos = the home or household
-ology = study of
-The study of the distribution and abundance of
organisms in relation to their environment
-Focus is on interactions
Hierarchical organization of
ecological systems
-Organism - a unique individual
-Population - group of potentially interbreeding
individuals (i.e., species)
-Community - all populations within an ecosystem (i.e.,
multiple species)
-Ecosystem - community + physical environment
-Biosphere - ecosystems of the Earth
Four ecological subdisciplines
• Behavioral Ecology
• How does behavior contribute to survivorship, reproduction and population growth?
• Population Ecology
• What controls the abundance of a species?
• How do populations grow?
• What are the controls on population growth rate?
• Community Ecology
• Interactions among organisms with and across
environments
• Biodiversity on earth
• Preservation of species-rich areas
• Linkages between species richness and
community and ecosystem function
• Ecosystem Ecology
• Passage of energy and nutrients through
communities
• Effects of energy and nutrients on communities
• Human alterations of global nutrient cycles
Ecology is an integrative/
interdisciplinary science
-Understanding of the
biological (biotic) and physical
(abiotic) sciences
-Provides a context for the
reductionist sciences in biology
-Closely tied to genetics and
evolution
-Ecology can be studied at
different spatial and temporal
scales
-Includes the role of humans in
their environment (= global
change)
What is a species?
• Ecology is based on the idea that we can identify
different groups of organisms within an ecosystem
• These groups are generally called species
– Genetic species concept
• A group of populations whose individuals have a
distinct genetic makeup and who do not interbreed
with others groups of populations for some reason
What Is a Population?
• The term population
refers to the number
of organisms of the
same species
residing in a given
area
– Population size = # of
individuals
– Population density =
# of individuals/unit
of area
Change in Population Size
• All populations change in
size over time
• Birth and immigration
result in an increased
population size if they
outnumber death and
emigration
• Environmental factors
play a key role in the
increase or decrease of
a population
Exponential Growth
• Exponential growth
results when population
growth increases by a
constant proportion
from one generation to
the next
• Doubling time is
used to measure the
rate of population
growth
Carrying Capacity
• No population can
increase in size indefinitely
• Carrying capacity is
reached when population
growth reaches zero
• Achieved when birth and
immigration equals death
and emigration
• Carrying capacity limits
results from resource
availability
What Factors Influence
Population Growth?
• Growth factors are things that
cause animals to flourish.
– Food, space
• Reduction factors are things
that cause animals to die.
– Food shortages, lack of space,
disease, predation, deterioration
of habitat, and natural disasters
• Collectively, reduction factors
constitute environmental
resistance.
Environmental Resistance
• Environmental resistance • Density dependant Env.
can be further grouped Resist.: limit increase or
into: decrease of organisms
depending on the density
• Density independent (#/area) of the organism.
Env. Resist.: limit growth – Competition: for food
of organisms irrespective – Predation: Predators shift
of number. to most populated prey
– Storms, floods, most – Parasitism: Increase #
weather phenomena makes transfer easier
– Disease: like parasites,
disease spreads more
readily
Species Interactions
• Predator – Prey
relationships
demonstrate one
species’ ability to
influence another
species’ population
size
What Is A Community?
• Many populations of
organisms living together
make up a community
• The kind of interactions
between different
populations can
influence community
structure
• Climatic events may
also influence
community structure
Community Structure:
Food Webs
• A food web is a
series of
interconnected food
chains
• Each food chain
demonstrates a
consumer-victim
relationship between
the species involved
Trophic Levels
• Producers tend to
• Food chains tend to photosynthesize and include
be short with generally plants and blue-green bacteria
fewer then five links • Consumers are defined by what
• General progression is they eat
from producer – Herbivores: eat plants
(autotroph) to – Carnivores: eat meat
consumer – Omnivores: eat both plant
(heterotroph) and meat
• Energy stored as food – Detrivore: eat decay products
is called biomass
Why Are Food Chains
Short?
• Energy is lost at each
step of the food chain
• How is energy lost?
1. Not all the available
biomass is eaten.
2. Not all the material Carnivore
eaten can be digested
adequately
Herbivore
3. Much of the ingested
material is used for
energy or heat
Producer
Community Change:
Succession
• Succession is a slow
ecosystem force which
is most easily
recognized after a
destructive force has
devastated an
environment.
•Primary succession: occurs where there was never life before:
volcanic island or glacial retreat.
•Secondary succession: occurs where there once was life.
Established soil results in a sped up process.
What Is an Ecosystem?
• A community of
organisms together
with the physical
environment in which
they live constitutes
an ecosystem
• Energy, resources
and organisms can
move between
ecosystems.
