Chapter 15
Polymorphism
and Virtual
Functions
Learning Objectives
Virtual Function Basics
Late binding
Implementing virtual functions
When to use a virtual function
Abstract classes and pure virtual functions
Pointers and Virtual Functions
Extended type compatibility
Downcasting and upcasting
C++ "under the hood" with virtual functions
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Virtual Function Basics
Polymorphism
Associating many meanings to one function
Virtual functions provide this capability
Fundamental principle of object-oriented
programming!
Virtual
Existing in "essence" though not in fact
Virtual Function
Can be "used" before it’s "defined"
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Figures Example
Best explained by example:
Classes for several kinds of figures
Rectangles, circles, ovals, etc.
Each figure an object of different class
Rectangle data: height, width, center point
Circle data: center point, radius
All derive from one parent-class: Figure
Require function: draw()
Different instructions for each figure
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Figures Example 2
Each class needs different draw
function
Can be called "draw" in each class, so:
Rectangle r;
Circle c;
r.draw(); //Calls Rectangle class’s draw
c.draw(); //Calls Circle class’s draw
Nothing new here yet…
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Figures Example: center()
Parent class Figure contains functions
that apply to "all" figures; consider:
center(): moves a figure to center of screen
Erases 1st, then re-draws
So Figure::center() would use function draw()
to re-draw
Complications!
Which draw() function?
From which class?
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Figures Example: New Figure
Consider new kind of figure comes along:
Triangle class
derived from Figure class
Function center() inherited from Figure
Will it work for triangles?
It uses draw(), which is different for each figure!
It will use Figure::draw() won’t work for triangles
Want inherited function center() to use function
Triangle::draw() NOT function Figure::draw()
But class Triangle wasn’t even WRITTEN when
Figure::center() was! Doesn’t know "triangles"!
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Figures Example: Virtual!
Virtual functions are the answer
Tells compiler:
"Don’t know how function is implemented"
"Wait until used in program"
"Then get implementation from object
instance"
Called late binding or dynamic binding
Virtual functions implement late binding
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Virtual Functions: Another Example
Bigger example best to demonstrate
Record-keeping program for automotive
parts store
Track sales
Don’t know all sales yet
1st only regular retail sales
Later: Discount sales, mail-order, etc.
Depend on other factors besides just price, tax
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Virtual Functions: Auto Parts
Program must:
Compute daily gross sales
Calculate largest/smallest sales of day
Perhaps average sale for day
All come from individual bills
But many functions for computing bills will
be added "later"!
When different types of sales added!
So function for "computing a bill" will
be virtual!
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Class Sale Definition
class Sale
{
public:
Sale();
Sale(double thePrice);
double getPrice() const;
virtual double bill() const;
double savings(const Sale& other) const;
private:
double price;
};
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Member Functions
savings and operator <
double Sale::savings(const Sale& other) const
{
return (bill() – other.bill());
}
bool operator < ( const Sale& first,
const Sale& second)
{
return (first.bill() < second.bill());
}
Notice BOTH use member function bill()!
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Class Sale
Represents sales of single item with no
added discounts or charges.
Notice reserved word "virtual" in
declaration of member function bill
Impact: Later, derived classes of Sale can
define THEIR versions of function bill
Other member functions of Sale will use
version based on object of derived class!
They won’t automatically use Sale’s version!
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Derived Class DiscountSale Defined
class DiscountSale : public Sale
{
public:
DiscountSale();
DiscountSale(double thePrice,
double the Discount);
double getDiscount() const;
void setDiscount(double newDiscount);
double bill() const;
private:
double discount;
};
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DiscountSale’s Implementation
of bill()
double DiscountSale::bill() const
{
double fraction = discount/100;
return (1 – fraction)*getPrice();
}
Qualifier "virtual" does not go in actual
function definition
"Automatically" virtual in derived class
Declaration (in interface) not required to have
"virtual" keyword either (but usually does)
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DiscountSale’s Implementation
of bill()
Virtual function in base class:
"Automatically" virtual in derived class
Derived class declaration (in interface)
Not required to have "virtual" keyword
But typically included anyway,
for readability
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Derived Class DiscountSale
DiscountSale’s member function bill()
implemented differently than Sale’s
Particular to "discounts"
Member functions savings and "<"
Will use this definition of bill() for all objects
of DiscountSale class!
Instead of "defaulting" to version defined in
Sales class!
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Virtual: Wow!
Recall class Sale written long before
derived class DiscountSale
Members savings and "<" compiled before
even had ideas of a DiscountSale class
Yet in a call like:
DiscountSale d1, d2;
d1.savings(d2);
Call in savings() to function bill() knows to
use definition of bill() from DiscountSale class
Powerful!
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Virtual: How?
To write C++ programs:
Assume it happens by "magic"!
But explanation involves late binding
Virtual functions implement late binding
Tells compiler to "wait" until function is used in
program
Decide which definition to use based on
calling object
Very important OOP principle!
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Overriding
Virtual function definition changed in a
derived class
We say it’s been "overidden"
Similar to redefined
Recall: for standard functions
So:
Virtual functions changed: overridden
Non-virtual functions changed: redefined
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Virtual Functions: Why Not All?
Clear advantages to virtual functions as
we’ve seen
One major disadvantage: overhead!
Uses more storage
Late binding is "on the fly", so programs run slower
So if virtual functions not needed, should
not be used
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Pure Virtual Functions
Base class might not have "meaningful"
definition for some of it’s members!
It’s purpose solely for others to derive from
Recall class Figure
All figures are objects of derived classes
Rectangles, circles, triangles, etc.
Class Figure has no idea how to draw!
Make it a pure virtual function:
virtual void draw() = 0;
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Abstract Base Classes
Pure virtual functions require no definition
Forces all derived classes to define "their
own" version
Class with one or more pure virtual
functions is: abstract base class
Can only be used as base class
No objects can ever be created from it
Since it doesn’t have complete "definitions" of all
it’s members!
If derived class fails to define all pure’s:
It’s an abstract base class too
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Extended Type Compatibility
Given:
Derived is derived class of Base
Derived objects can be assigned to objects
of type Base
But NOT the other way!
Consider previous example:
A DiscountSale "is a" Sale, but reverse
not true
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Extended Type
Compatibility Example
class Pet
{
public:
string name;
virtual void print() const;
};
class Dog : public Pet
{
public:
string breed;
virtual void print() const;
};
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Classes Pet and Dog
Now given declarations:
Dog vdog;
Pet vpet;
Notice member variables name and
breed are public!
For example purposes only! Not typical!
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Using Classes Pet and Dog
Anything that "is a" dog "is a" pet:
vdog.name = "Tiny";
vdog.breed = "Great Dane";
vpet = vdog;
These are allowable
Can assign values to parent-types, but
not reverse
A pet "is not a" dog (not necessarily)
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Slicing Problem
Notice value assigned to vpet "loses" it’s
breed field!
cout << vpet.breed;
Produces ERROR msg!
Called slicing problem
Might seem appropriate
Dog was moved to Pet variable, so it should
be treated like a Pet
And therefore not have "dog" properties
Makes for interesting philosphical debate
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Slicing Problem Fix
In C++, slicing problem is nuisance
It still "is a" Great Dane named Tiny
We’d like to refer to it’s breed even if it’s
been treated as a Pet
Can do so with pointers to
dynamic variables
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Slicing Problem Example
Pet *ppet;
Dog *pdog;
pdog = new Dog;
pdog->name = "Tiny";
pdog->breed = "Great Dane";
ppet = pdog;
Cannot access breed field of object
pointed to by ppet:
cout << ppet->breed; //ILLEGAL!
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Slicing Problem Example
Must use virtual member function:
ppet->print();
Calls print member function in Dog class!
Because it’s virtual
C++ "waits" to see what object pointer ppet
is actually pointing to before "binding" call
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Virtual Destructors
Recall: destructors needed to de-allocate
dynamically allocated data
Consider:
Base *pBase = new Derived;
…
delete pBase;
Would call base class destructor even though
pointing to Derived class object!
Making destructor virtual fixes this!
Good policy for all destructors to be virtual
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Casting
Consider:
Pet vpet;
Dog vdog;
…
vdog = static_cast<Dog>(vpet); //ILLEGAL!
Can’t cast a pet to be a dog, but:
vpet = vdog; // Legal!
vpet = static_cast<Pet>(vdog); //Also legal!
Upcasting is OK
From descendant type to ancestor type
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Downcasting
Downcasting dangerous!
Casting from ancestor type to descended type
Assumes information is "added"
Can be done with dynamic_cast:
Pet *ppet;
ppet = new Dog;
Dog *pdog = dynamic_cast<Dog*>(ppet);
Legal, but dangerous!
Downcasting rarely done due to pitfalls
Must track all information to be added
All member functions must be virtual
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Inner Workings of Virtual Functions
Don’t need to know how to use it!
Principle of information hiding
Virtual function table
Compiler creates it
Has pointers for each virtual member function
Points to location of correct code for that function
Objects of such classes also have pointer
Points to virtual function table
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Summary 1
Late binding delays decision of which
member function is called until runtime
In C++, virtual functions use late binding
Pure virtual functions have no definition
Classes with at least one are abstract
No objects can be created from
abstract class
Used strictly as base for others to derive
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Summary 2
Derived class objects can be assigned to
base class objects
Base class members are lost; slicing problem
Pointer assignments and dynamic objects
Allow "fix" to slicing problem
Make all destructors virtual
Good programming practice
Ensures memory correctly de-allocated
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