Computer Network and
Communication
CNS3200
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Learning Outcome
• EXPLAIN THE MECHANISM & SHOW THE CALCULATION OF
ERROR CONTROL AND THE RELATED PROTOCOLS (NS)
Contents
Data Link Layer
•Types of Error
– Single bit error
– Burst error
•Error Detection
– Parity Check
– CRC
– Checksum
•Error Correction
– Hamming Code
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Types of Errors
Single bit error – only one bit is changed from 1
to 0 or from 0 to 1.
Burst error – two or more bits in the data unit
have changed.
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Error Detection
Error detection uses the concepts of redundancy,
which means adding extra bits detecting errors
at the destination.
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3 common error detection techniques
Parity Check Checksum
(most basic) (used
primarily by
upper layers)
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
(normally implemented in link layer)
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Parity Check
Simplest technique.
A redundant bit (parity bit), is appended to every data
unit.
Even parity - the total number of 1's in the data plus
parity bit must be an even number.
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Even Parity Generator
Data #1's in data P Total # 1's (data and P)
0110110 4 (Even) 0 4 (Even)
0011111 5 (Odd) 1 6 (Even)
0000000 0 (Even) 0 0 (Even)
1010100 3 (Odd) 1 4 (Even)
1111111 7 (Odd) 1 8 (Even)
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Example 1
Even Parity
Suppose the sender wants to send the word world. In
ASCII the five characters are coded as
1110111 1101111 1110010 1101100 1100100
The following shows the actual bits sent
11101110 11011110 11100100 11011000 11001001
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Example 2
Even Parity
Now suppose the word world in Example 1 is received by
the receiver without being corrupted in transmission.
11101110 11011110 11100100 11011000
11001001
The receiver counts the 1s in each character and comes up
with even numbers (6, 6, 4, 4, 4). The data are accepted.
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Example 3
Even Parity
Now suppose the word world in Example 1 is corrupted
during transmission.
11111110 11011110 11101100 11011000
11001001
The receiver counts the 1s in each character and comes up
with even and odd numbers (7, 6, 5, 4, 4). The receiver
knows that the data are corrupted, discards them, and asks
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for retransmission.
XOR Truth Table
CRC
The most powerful of the redundancy checking
technique.
Based on binary division.
The redundancy bits used by CRC are derived by
dividing the data unit by a predetermined divisor;
the remainder is the CRC.
A CRC must:
have exactly one less bit than the divisor
appending it to the end of the data string must
make the resulting bit sequence exactly
divisible by the divisor.
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CRC generator and checker
1. Receive the frame. 1. Get the raw frame.
2. Divide it by divisor. 2. Left shift the raw frame by n bits
3. Check the reminder. and divide it by divisor.
3. The remainder is the CRC bit.
4. Append the CRC bit to the frame
and transmit. 14
XOR Operation (Exculsive OR)
Input
Output
A B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Division in CRC encoder
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Division in the CRC decoder for two cases
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CRC
CRC generator – at the sending node.
CRC checker – at the receiving node.
Polynomial:
The CRC generator (the divisor) is most often
represented as an algebraic polynomial.
e.g.
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A polynomial representing a divisor
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Standard polynomials
Name Polynomial Application
CRC-8 x 8 + x2 + x + 1 ATM header
CRC-10 x10 + x9 + x5 + x4 + x 2 + 1 ATM AAL
ITU-16 x16 + x12 + x5 + 1 HDLC
x32 + x26 + x23 + x22 + x16 + x12 + x11 + x10 + x8 +
ITU-32 LANs
x7 + x5 + x4 + x2 + x + 1
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Checksum
The error detection used by the higher-layer
protocols.
Check generator – in the sending node
Checksum checker – at receiving node
Ethernet frame 21
Data unit and checksum
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Example 6
Suppose the following block of 16 bits is to be sent using a
checksum of 8 bits.
10101001 00111001
The numbers are added using one’s complement
10101001
00111001
------------
Sum 11100010
Checksum 00011101
The pattern sent is 10101001 00111001 00011101 23
Example 7
Now suppose the receiver receives the pattern sent in Example 6
and there is no error.
10101001 00111001 00011101
When the receiver adds the three sections, it will get all 1s, which,
after complementing, is all 0s and shows that there is no error.
10101001
00111001
00011101
------------
Sum 11111111
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Complement 00000000 means that the pattern is OK.
Example 8
Now suppose there is a burst error of length 5 that affects 4 bits.
Original data 10101001 00111001 00011101
Corrupted data 10101111 11111001 00011101
When the receiver adds the three sections, it gets
10101111
11111001
00011101
Partial Sum 1 11000101
Carry 1
Sum 11000110
Complement 00111001 the pattern is corrupted.
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Error Correction
Hamming Code
Focus on a simple case: Single-Bit Error
Correction
Use the relationship between data and
redundancy bits
Developed by Richard Hamming
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Data and redundancy bits
Number of Number of Total
data bits redundancy bits bits
m r m+r
1 2 3
2 3 5
3 3 6
4 3 7
5 4 9
6 4 10
7 4 11
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Positions of redundancy bits in Hamming code (11,7)
* Check bits occupy positions that are powers of 2
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• All bit positions that are powers of 2 are used as parity bits.
(positions 1, 2, 4, 8…)
• All other bit positions are for the data to be encoded. (positions 3,
5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11…)
• Each parity bit calculates the parity for some of the bits in the code
word. The position of the parity bit determines the sequence of
bits that it alternately checks and skips.
• General rule for position n: skip n−1 bits, check n bits, skip n bits,
check n bits...
• Position 1 (n=1): skip 0 bit (0=n−1), check 1 bit (n), skip 1 bit (n),
check 1 bit (n), skip 1 bit (n), etc. (1,3,5,7,9,11...)
• Position 2 (n=2): skip 1 bit (1=n−1), check 2 bits (n), skip 2 bits
(n), check 2 bits (n), skip 2 bits (n), etc. (2,3,6,7,10,11...)
• Position 4 (n=4): skip 3 bits (3=n−1), check 4 bits (n), skip 4 bits
(n), check 4 bits (n), skip 4 bits (n), etc. (4,5,6,7,12...)
• Position 8 (n=8): skip 7 bits (7=n−1), check 8 bits (n), skip 8 bits
(n), check 8 bits (n), skip 8 bits (n), etc. (8-15,24-31,40-47,...)
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Redundancy bits calculation
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Example of redundancy bit calculation
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Single-Bit Error
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Error detection using Hamming code
Error
Detection
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