THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE

BY SYLIVIA .S
.

1 01/27/2025
 INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT . DUE ON 27
NOVEMBER, 2024

1. Explain the importance of silver recovery

2. Factors affecting silver recovery

3. State methods of silver recovery and explain one of

the method stated
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 THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE

A radiographic image is created

by passing an x-ray beam through
the patient and interacting with an
image receptor, such as an imaging
plate in computed radiography (CR).
The variations in absorption and
transmission of the exiting x-ray
beam structurally represent the
3
anatomic area of interest. 01/27/2025
 THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
 A quality radiographic image accurately represents the anatomic area of
interest, and information is well visualized for diagnosis. It is important
to identify the attributes of a quality radiographic image before
comprehending all the factors that affect its quality.
 Radiographic images can be acquired from two different types of image
receptors:
- Digital Image Receptors
- film-screen Image Receptors
The process of creating the latent image by differential absorption is
the same for both digital and film image receptors, but the acquisition,
processing,
4 and display vary greatly. 01/27/2025
 THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
 The quality of a radiographic image influences diagnostic
accuracy and subsequent clinical management of the
patient. A radiographic image is accepted as good quality
when certain technical qualities are satisfied, and the
image considered of diagnostic value

5 01/27/2025
 THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
How can we get good quality images in radiology?
 Collimation or beam-limiting devices, are used to
decrease the amount of unnecessary scatter radiation
to the patient. By decreasing scatter radiation, detail
and contrast in the image are increased.

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 THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
What are the radiographic quality rules?
 The concept of radiographic quality considers the factors
that determine the success of this aim.
The quality of a radiograph depends on two photographic
properties and two geometric properties:
- density and contrast (the photographic properties);
- definition and distortion (the geometric properties).

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 THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
 Image quality can refer to; the level of accuracy with
which different imaging systems capture, process,
store, compress, transmit and display the signals
that form an image.
 Another definition refers to image quality as "the
weighted combination of all of the visually significant
attributes of an image".
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 THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
The image should outline the following in order to be seen
 Sufficient sharpness of the outline:- Sharpness of the
outline is the breath of the boundary between two areas of
the different density
 Sufficient radiographic contrast:- Radiographic contrast
is the difference in brightness between various parts of the
image which correspond to areas in the subject of different
x-ray absorption

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 THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
 Radiographic contrast is the difference in brightness
between two areas of different density
 The contrast of the radiographic image is controlled
by three factors
(1) film contrast,
(2) processing chemicals
(3) radiation factors of objective contrast
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 SUFFICIENT SHARPNESS

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12 01/27/2025
 THE THREE FEATURES OF THE IMAGE ARE :-
1) Sharpness of the outline
2) Radiographic contrast or difference in brightness
3) Distinctness with which the image is made visible and can
be seen
Distinctness with which detail of the subject is made visible is
known as DEFINITION
Definition depends upon sharpness of the outline and upon
differences in brightness. It is therefore a function of
sharpness and contrast.
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 SHARPNESS OF THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
Radiographic unsharpness is caused by:-
I. Geometry Factors:- connected with the geometry of
the shadow formation
II. Photographic Factors:- connected with image
recorder {intrinsic factors}
III. Movement Factors:- connected with the subject
movement {motional}
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 SHARPNESS OF THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE

I. GEOMETRY FACTORS OF UNSHARPNESS

Has three origins;
a) The size of the x-ray source
b) The distance between the x-ray source and the recording
media {FFD}
c) The distance between the film and the subject being
radiographed {OFD}
The total degree of geometrical unsharpness is determined by
the relationship between three factors.
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 SHARPNESS OF THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
I. GEOMETRY FACTORS OF UNSHARPNESS
a) THE SIZE OF THE X-RAY SOURCE
N/B : Penumbra increases as result of large x-ray source
Sharpness of the outline is therefore influenced by the size of the x-
ray source therefore the smallest source gives the least penumbra.
The size of the x-ray source – x-ray are produced over the area of
the target receiving electron bombardment
The size of area covered by the electron beam is determined by the
SHAPE and SIZE of the filament and THE MEASUREMENTS OF
THE FOCUSING SLOT of the cathode in which it is set.
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 SHARPNESS OF THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
I. GEOMETRY FACTORS OF UNSHARPNESS

a) THE SIZE OF THE X-RAY SOURCE

 This area of electron bombardment is termed as ACTUAL
FOCUS of the x-ray and is the real size of the x-ray source
 The smallest effective focus gives the least penumbra
 The actual focus of the x-ray tube is foreshortened by angulation
of the target face.
 A rectangular area of electron bombardment projects as a square
when viewed from a point directly below the centre of the anode
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at 90 degree to the long axis of the tube 01/27/2025
 GEOMETRY UNSHARPNESS- X-RAY SOURCE {FINITE)
 In the images less penumbra is produced in parts of the subject under B than in part under A
 The image is not equally sharp in outline at all points along the long axis of the tube

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 SHARPNESS OF THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
I. GEOMETRY UNSHARPNESS
KEY POINT:
 Sharpness of the outline is influenced by the size of the x-ray source
therefore the smallest source gives the least penumbra
 The size of the area covered by the electron beam is determined by
the shape and the size of the filament and the measurements of the
focusing slot of the cathode in which is it set. The area of electron
bombardment is termed as the Actual focus or Real x-ray source
 Focal spot is the area of the anode surface which receives the
beam of electrons from the cathode. It is the apparent source of x-
19 rays 01/27/2025
 The smallest
Effective focus
gives the least
penumbra
 The actual focus of
the x-ray tube is
foreshorted by
angulation of the
target face
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 SHARPNESS OF THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
I. GEOMETRY UNSHARPNESS- X-RAY SOURCE

b) FOCAL-FILM DISTANCE (FFD)

Focal-film distance (FFD) is the distance between the center
of the anode of the x-ray tube (the focal spot) and the film
(top of cassette). Also known as, Source-image distance (SID)
which this measurement affects magnification, distortion, and
x-ray beam intensity.
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 SHARPNESS OF THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
I. GEOMETRY UNSHARPNESS- X-RAY SOURCE

b) FOCAL-FILM DISTANCE (FFD)

 Increasing film-focus distance (FFD) from the traditional 100 cm has
been shown to be an effective method of reducing dose whilst
maintaining image quality. In particular, previous work increasing the
FFD from 100 to 130 cm for lumbar spine examinations
demonstrated an effective dose reduction of 44%.
 The distance between the source of X-rays and the film is known
as the target–film distance also known as the source-to-film distance.
 The shorter the subject film distance the smaller the penumbra
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 SHARPNESS OF THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
I. GEOMETRY FACTORS OF UNSHARPNESS
 FOCUS-OBJECT DISTANCE
Focus-object distance. The distance from the target of an x-ray tube to the
surface being radiographed.
 A short distance, shows less magnification than a long distance
> Increasing source-to-object distance only will decrease the magnification
of the radiographic image.
> Decreasing source to object distance only will increase the magnification
of the radiographic image
 When the source to object distance increases, the intensity of the x-ray beam
decreases following the inverse square law, this will result in a decrease in the
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intensity of the beam reaching the object, and this results in a decrease in image
01/27/2025
density
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SHARPNESS OF THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
I. GEOMETRY FACTORS OF UNSHARPNESS
Penumbra produced by an effective focus of a certain size become
smaller as the distance between the x-ray tube and the film
increased
Therefore the long the tube film distance reduces penumbra
FOCAL-FILM DISTANCE (FFD):- KEY POINTS
i. The smaller the effective focus smaller the penumbra
ii. The long the tube film distance the smaller the penumbra
iii. The shorter the subject film distance the smaller the penumbra
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GEOMETRICAL UNSHARPNESS DEPENDS UPON THREE
FACTORS
1. Focal spot size:- reduction in focal spot size results in
reduced geometrical unsharpness: The apparent effective
focal spot determines the geometrical unsharpness which
also depends on the x-ray tube target angle
2. Object image distance:- reducing OFD reduces
geometrical unsharpness
3. Focus object distance:- increasing focus object reduces
geometrical unsharpness
26 Focus object distance = FFD - OFD 01/27/2025
 Geometrical unsharpness depends upon three factors

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 PAUSE

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 DISTORTION IN THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
Distortion is incorrectness in the proportion of the structures recorded
radiograph.
THE SIZE OF THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
 The x-ray beam diverges from its source, spreading out so that it
becomes greater in cross section
 The degree of enlargement that occurs is not a constant, it is
determined by
- the distance separating structures being examined from the
film which records them;
- the distance between the x-ray source and the film
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  Magnification becomes greater for structures which are;
DISTORTION IN THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE

- further from the film

- and short source film distances,
 It becomes less for structures which are;
- close to the film
- and for long source film distance
 With an anatomical structure parallel to the film and the central ray at right angles to the film,
the true dimensions of the structures can be calculated from its image size by this relationship

 True size = Image size x Tube structures distance

tube film distance

 Proportion of an image differ from those of the structure that it represents

30A distorted image gives a misleading view of the object 01/27/2025
 DISTORTION IN THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE

SHAPE OF THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE

Distortion due to the object plane – image plane relationship

I. Distortion is due largely to the relationship between the

directions of the object plane and the image plane
II. Distortion is not normally apparent as long as the object
plane is parallel to the image plane, regardless of the x-ray
beam direction
 Radiographic image distortion appears either in the form of

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FORESHORTING or ELONGATION 01/27/2025
DISTORTION DUE TO THE OBJECT PLANE – IMAGE PLANE RELATIONSHIP

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DISTORTION DUE TO THE OBJECT PLANE – IMAGE PLANE RELATIONSHIP
FORESHORTENING
 If the image plane remains at right angles to the beam any rotation of the object
plane away from its initial position produces foreshortening along one axis of the
image. E.g. failure to position the feet in the internal rotation causes foreshortening
of the femoral neck on an antero –posterior projection of the pelvis; internal rotation
sets the neck of femur horizontally i.e. parallel to the film
ELONGATION
 If the object plane remains at right angles to the beam, any rotation of the image
plane away from its initial position produces elongation along one axis of the image
 For example the characteristic elongated egg-shaped appearance of the cranium on a
30 degree Fronto – occipital (Townes’ or half –axial) projection of the skull

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 DISTORTION DUE TO THE OBJECT PLANE – IMAGE PLANE RELATIONSHIP
AVOIDANCE OF DISTORTION
 Rotation of both the object plane and image plane by the same
direction, such that they remain mutually parallel, eliminate
distortion of structures in the object plane
 Rotation of the object plane and image plane by the same angle in
opposite direction, such that they remain mutually parallel,
eliminate distortion of structures in the object plane: because under
these conditions, foreshortening created by the object plane rotation
is exactly counterbalance by elongation resulting from the image
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plane rotation 01/27/2025
 DISTORTION DUE TO X-RAY BEAM DIVERGENCE
 If the object plane and image plane are parallel to each other,
beam divergence causes magnification but not distortion
 However, if the two planes are not parallel beam, divergence
produces third form of distortion in addition to foreshortening and
elongation
DIFFERENTIAL MAGNIFICATION occurs where different
parts of the object plane are recorded with different degree of
magnification
 As a general rule radiographic positioning minimizes differential
magnification by bringing the principal plane of the structure
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under examination parallel to film 01/27/2025
HOW TO MINIMIZE GEOMETRICAL UNSHARPNESS
I. Reduction of focal spot size:-by selecting a smallest focal spot
available on the x-ray tube and keeping other factors constant
II. Reduction of object image distance and increasing film focal
distance
 Macro-radiography may exhibit geometrical unsharpness due to
the large object film distance to this magnification technique
 A radiograph of the thick body may demonstrate some structure
more sharp than others e.g. Fronto- occipital projection of the
skull, anterior structure may not be shown as clearly as posterior
structure because they suffer greater geometrical unsharpness
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 MOTIONAL FACTORS IN UNSHARPNESS {KINETIC} - {Um}
MOTIONAL FACTORS AFFECTING UNSHARPNESS
i. Involuntary: Peristaltic action in the abdominal viscera and the
heart beat.
ii. Voluntary: Movement of the body sufficiently blurs the
shadows outline.
The degree of unsharpness produced by motion depends upon
EXTEND at which movement has taken place, DIRECTION of
movement and DURATION the exposure has last.
A sufficient degree of motion blurs the shadow outline
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MOTIONAL FACTORS IN UNSHARPNESS {Um}
It is therefore depends on:-
1) Extend of movement:- fast movement produces greater
blurring
2) Direction of movement:- movement across the direction of
the x-ray beam produces the greater blurring
3) Duration of exposure:- long exposure times produces the
greater blurring
 Relative motion is caused by movement of the PATIENT ,
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the FILM or the X-RAY TUBE 01/27/2025
 MOTIONAL FACTORS IN UNSHARPNESS
TOTAL IMAGE UNSHARPNESS {UT}
This is a combined effect due to geometric {UG},
photographic {Up} and motional {Um}. UT=
r(UG² + Up²+ Um²)

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40 01/27/2025
 PHOTOGRAPHIC {INTRINSIC} FACTORS OF
UNSHARPNESS –UP
INTENSIFYING SCREEN
 The salt screens used are made of crystals each of which
fluorescence as a separate entity under the action of x-ray
 The x-ray is therefore produced by many separate sources of light,
these separate light sources result in image with a certain diffusion of
outline
 The extent of this diffusion depends on the size of light emitting
crystal and the distance of the crystal from the film since there is
divergence of the screen light.
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 PHOTOGRAPHIC {INTRINSIC} FACTORS OF
UNSHARPNESS –UP
PARALLAX
 The apparent change in relationship of the object due to different
viewpoint
 X-ray film has two separate images at a distance from each other
which is the thickness of the base plus the thickness of each
emulsion layer
 When the film is wet and the two emulsion are swollen by moisture
the images are separated, separation of the image give rise to a
parallax effect or an error in superimposition of two images
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 PHOTOGRAPHIC {INTRINSIC} FACTORS OF
UNSHARPNESS –UP
EMULSION SOURCES OF UNSHARPNESS
 Irradiation is the source of unsharpness in the image ; the scattering within
the emulsion by x-ray quanta and electron released in the absorption
processes.
 These electrons can make developable silver halide grains which have not
been reached directly by an x-ray quantum
 With very high energy x-ray the film unsharpness resulting from the electron
scattering will be greater, since the more energetic quanta can be energize
more electrons
In regarding to the resolving power of photographic material: grains size in the
emulsions used for radiography make no significant contribution to the
unsharpness
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of the image 01/27/2025
GEOMETRICAL, MOTIONAL AND PHOTOGRAPHIC
UNSHARPNESS IN RELATION TO THE
RADIOGRAPHIC RESULTS
What reduces geometrical unsharpness ?
I. Short subject film distance
II. Long tube film distance
III. Small effective focus for the x-ray tube
what reduces motional unsharpness ?
IV. The application of short exposure intervals
What reduces photographic factors ?
V. By not using intensifying screens
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 THE RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST
THE RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST OR DIFFERENCE IN
BRIGHTNESS HAS TWO SEPARATE ELEMENTS:
1. OBJECT CONTRAST:- can be calculated and given
numerical form; since it is the difference in density in
various parts of the image i.e. D1 – D2. Objective most
commonly means not influenced by or based on a personal
viewpoint—based on the analysis of an object of
observation only
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 THE RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST
2. SUBJECT CONTRAST:- the difference in brightness between
areas of the film as it seen to an absorber. Subjective most
commonly means based on the personal perspective or
preferences of a person—the subject who's observing
something..
Anything objective sticks to the facts, but anything subjective has
feelings. Objective and subjective are opposites. Objective: It is
raining. Subjective: I love the rain!
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 RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST OR DIFFERENCE IN
BRIGHTNESS

 FILM CONTRAST
film contrast describes the ability films to display
differences in subject contrast. A high contrast film will
reveal small differences in subject contrast more clearly. The
slope of the characteristic curve is a measure of contrast; the
greater the slope of the curve, the greater the film contrast

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 RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST OR DIFFERENCE IN
BRIGHTNESS
 RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST
Is the density difference between neighboring regions on a
plain radiograph. High radiographic contrast is observed in
radiographs where density differences are notably distinguished
(black to white).
 kVp also controls the amount of contrast (the difference between
whites and blacks on an image) seen on an x-ray. The amount of
contrast visible in an image is referred to as gray scale. - If an
image has high contrast, there will be white and black areas on the
film,
48
but very few grays in between. 01/27/2025
 FACTORS AFFECT FILM CONTRAST AND SUBJECT
CONTRAST
It is affected by the geometric factors of the exposure: size of the
radiation source (focal spot size), distance from the
target/source to the film and distance from the part to the film
What is the difference between subject and film contrast?
1. Subject contrast - as the thickness of the anatomic structure, the
density and the atomic number of the subject increases, so the
radiopacity of the part increases.
2. Film contrast - film contrast describes the ability films to display
differences in subject contrast
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50 01/27/2025
 THE CONTRAST OF RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
Factors influencing objective contrast is divided into three main
groups;
1) Radiation Factors
2) Film Factors
3) Processing Factors

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1. RADIATION FACTORS {EXPOSURE FACTORS}

i. The quality of the primary radiation

ii. The scattered radiation reaching the fil m

TWO BROAD CATEGORIES ARE:-

- Exposure factors
- Film – screen factors

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1. RADIATION FACTORS {EXPOSURE FACTORS}
TWO BROAD CATEGORIES ARE:-
i. EXPOSURE FACTORS:- i.e. factors which affect the
quality and distribution of radiation energy to which the
image receptor {film or screen system} is exposed.
ii. FILM – SCREEN FACTORS:- i.e. factors which affect
the way in which the energy received by the image
receptor is absorbed and translated into image density and
contrast
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 EXPOSURE FACTORS
The generation of x-rays in the x-ray tube and then following
the path of the x-ray beam from the tube focus to the image
receptor
 The primary exposure technique factors the radiographer
selects on the control panel are milliamperage, time of
exposure, and kilovoltage peak (kVp). Depending on the
type of control panel, milliamperage and exposure time may
be selected separately or combined as one factor,
milliamperage/second (mAs).
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 EXPOSURE FACTORS
The three main components of any x-ray exposure are kVp,
mA, and time.
kVp: the power and strength of the x-ray beam (quality of

the x-rays).
mAs: the number of x-ray photons produced by the x-ray
tube at the setting selected (quantity of x-rays).
Time: how long the exposure lasts.
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 EXPOSURE FACTORS
KILOVOLTAGE {KVp}:- Altering tube kilovoltage
affects two characteristics of the x-ray beam emitted
from the tube target
i. Quality of the beam
ii. Intensity of the beam

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 EXPOSURE FACTORS
i. QUALITY OF THE BEAM
It is an expression of the effective photon energy of the beam
A high-quality beam has a short wavelength, high mean energy,
and increased maximum energy. The kilovoltage controls the
beam quality. The kVp regulates the speed of electrons traveling
from the cathode to the anode and determines the penetrating ability
of the x-ray beam.

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 EXPOSURE FACTORS
 The most important quality of the x-ray beam is its ability
to penetrate through the human body to expose the
image receptor plate with sufficient signal to produce
and adequate image
 Beam quality refers to the overall energy or wavelength of
the beam and its penetrating power. A high-quality beam
has a short wavelength, high mean energy, and increased
maximum energy.
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 EXPOSURE FACTORS
 Quantity refers to the number of X-ray photons in the
beam . As the number of photons increases, the beam
intensity increases & any factors that affect the number of
x-ray photons in the beam influence x-ray- beam quantity
 The amperage and the exposure time determine the
number of electrons passing through the cathode filament.
Increasing the amperage or exposure time will increase the
number of photons generated in the x-ray tube.

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 EXPOSURE FACTORS
QUALITY OF THE BEAM
 The x-ray beam is often described in terms of its quantity and
its quality.
The prime factors that affect x-ray quantity are;
- milliamperage-seconds (mAs),
- kilovoltage (kVp),
- source–image receptor distance (SID),
- and filtration.
The factors that affect x-ray quality are;
- kilovoltage
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- and filtration. 01/27/2025
 EXPOSURE FACTORS
QUALITY of the beam has THREE significance in radiographic
imaging;
1. It influences the ability of the x-ray beam to penetrate matter:- an
increase in tube KVp produces an increase in penetrating power; thus
in general a higher tube KVp is required for thicker or denser patient
tissues.
2. It influences radiographic contrast:- tube KVp has important effect
on differential attenuation of the beam and therefore a subject contrast
reduction of KVp leads to an increase in radiographic contrast
3. It influences radiation dose to the patient, the radiation dose to
structures within the limits of the primary beam can be reduced if KVp
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is increased 01/27/2025
 EXPOSURE FACTORS
ii. INTENSITY OF THE BEAM
 Is an expression of the rate of the flow of radiation energy per unit
area of cross – section of that beam
 Beam intensity is the product of the quantity and quality of the
beam during exposure relative to a specific area. Therefore, the
beam's intensity is affected by beam quality (kVp) and beam
quantity (mAs). The beam intensity is also affected by the distance
between the x-ray tube and the exposed area.

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 EXPOSURE FACTORS
 The intensity of a beam is just the power for each square meter of
cross-section of the beam. So intensity is measured in watt metre -2.
The greater the intensity, the brighter the beam, as more energy per
second is detected by the absorbers placed in the beam
(power = intensity × collision area of detector).
 Raising the tube kilovoltage increases both the intensity of radiation
emitted from the tube target and the intensity of radiation reaching
the film and thus leads to an increase in the image density
 The intensity (I) of an x-ray beam increases approximately as the
63 square of the peak tube kilovoltage: (I)directly(KVp)2 01/27/2025
 2. FILM FACTORS IN OBJECTIVE
CONTRAST
Important factor in radiographic contrast area:
I. Radiation contrast within the subject
II. The Film gamma
 If the film gamma is low the radiation contrast within the subject are not
amplified and the resultant contrast in the radiographic image is poor
 Radiation contrasts in the subject are often very slight and film of low
gamma cannot give good results
 Film material of high gamma amplifies radiation contrast in the subject and
results in an image of good contrast which is acceptable
 Faster material tend to have lower contrast and screen type film exposed to
64 direct radiation has less contrast then when exposed between screen01/27/2025
 2. FILM – SCREEN FACTORS
Are those factors which affect the way, that the energy received by an image
receptor (direct exposure x-ray film or film screen system)is absorbed and
transformed into image density and contrast
DIRECT EXPOSED FILM:- Individual packed film (double wrapped) is
strong light proof envelopes which are almost perfectly radiolucent
FILM – SCREEN SYSTEMS :- Consists of a screen type x-ray film used in
conjunction with single or twin intensifying screens
 The photographic effect on the film emulsion is produced almost wholly by
exposure to light from the screens rather than to x ray (radiation)
 The film screen combination is always contained within a cassette specially
designed to maintain intimate contact between the film and intensifying
65screen and to exclude light 01/27/2025
 FILM – SCREEN FACTORS
FILM – SCREEN SYSTEMS
Intensifying screens intensify the effect of the X-ray beam energy on
the film by energy conversion. Some X-ray energy is absorbed by the
screen and re-emitted as u. v. and visible light energy
 The intensifying screen converts the x-ray energy into light, which
reaches the film and forms the latent image.
 An intensifying screen is used to intensify the x-ray effect during
radiation exposure of the x-ray film. Approximately 5% of the x-
ray photons will be absorbed by the film only. Intensifying screens
consist of a sheet of inorganic salts that emits fluorescent light when
66 stroked by x-rays. 01/27/2025
 The intensifying screen is
an energy converter; it
converts approximately 5
to 20% of the absorbed x-
ray energy into light. This
percentage is the conversion
efficiency of the screen, and
depends on the type of
material used in the screen.

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 FILM – SCREEN FACTORS
SCREEN SPEED:- The speed of an intensifying screen is a measure
of the luminance that results from a specified exposure to x rays
 It depends on the screen absorption efficiency for x-rays photons
and on its conversion efficiency
 An indication of the speeds of different screen is provided by the
quantity known as the INTENSIFICATION FACTOR
 The ratio of the x-ray exposure required to produce a given density
on the screen type film alone to that required to produce the
same density on the same type of film when used with
intensifying screens
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 FILM – SCREEN FACTORS
FILM SPEED:-The speed of screen type film is a measure of the visible light
exposure required to produced a specified image density.
 It depends on the emulsions ability to absorb light and on the efficiency with
which image density is produced by the photographic process
 The sensitivity of a photographic medium (e.g., a radiograph) to light or
radiation. The film speed is determined by: the size of its silver halide
crystals; the thickness of the emulsion; and the presence of
radiosensitive dyes.
 Film speed is directly related to crystal size and emulsion thickness.
inverse - since thicker emulsions tend to have larger crystals stacked on one
another. If a film is capable of obtaining adequate density with less exposure,
69 patient dose is also decreased 01/27/2025
Cont…
 ISO originally referred to the sensitivity of film—it's "light
gathering" ability. The higher the ISO rating, the greater the
film's ability to capture images taken in low light. High ISO film
was called fast film—it required a shorter exposure than a low
ISO film.
 ISO simply described as a film's sensitivity to light. ISO,
which stands for International Standards Organization, is the
sensitivity to light as pertains to either film or a digital sensor.
 The acronym ISO stands for “International Organization for
70
Standardization”. 01/27/2025
 Cont…
RECIPROCITY:- The photographic response to x-ray of direct exposure film
depends on the total energy received during the exposure
 It depends directly on the selected mAs. The response is the same whether the
energy arrives at low intensity over a long period or at high intensity over a short
period.
 Thus as long as all other factors (exposure) remain constant any combination of
mA and exposure time that gives the same mAs value produces the same image
density.
e.g. 25mA for 3 3sec. - 75mAs
75mA for 1 sec. - 75mAs
750mAs for 0.1 sec. - 75mAs
N/B
71
This response obey the reciprocity law. 01/27/2025
 PROCESSING FACTORS IN OBJECTIVE CONTRAST
a) Type and constitution of developing solution:-The activity
of the developer depends on
 Type of developer
 Concentration
 pH
 Concentration of restrainer & anti-foggant
b) Temperature of developer and time of development:- The
developer activity increases with temperature. The
temperature has to be controlled and maintained if
development is to be standardized
72 01/27/2025
PROCESSING FACTORS IN OBJECTIVE CONTRAST
c)Freshness of developer:- The developer activity reduces
with use because, the concentration of developing agent
and pH drops, while the concentration of restrainer
increases
d) Agitation of the film in the developer:- vigorous agitation
accelerates processing chemicals activity

73 01/27/2025
PROCESSING FACTORS IN OBJECTIVE CONTRAST
Key Factors:
 Developer Constitution:
High concentration: Overdevelopment → Excessive contrast.
Low concentration: Underdevelopment → Low contrast
 Developer Temperature:
High: Speeds development → Overdevelopment, artifacts.
Low: Slows development → Reduced contrast.
 Developer Freshness:
Fresh: Consistent contrast.
Old/Exhausted: Weak contrast, low density.
 Agitation:
Proper: Uniform contrast.
Excessive/Insufficient: Uneven development, streaks.
 Control
74 Measures: Follow guidelines, maintain temperature (20–25°C), replace old developer, and
01/27/2025
 PAUSE

75 01/27/2025
 CONTINUATION

76 01/27/2025
THE DEFINITION OF THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
FACTORS AFFECTING DEFINITION
IMAGE FACTORS:-
a) The sharpness and objective contrast
b) The degree of exposure
VIEWING FACTORS:-
Considered under two headings
c) Those relating to the illumination
d) Those relating to the eye of the observe
77 01/27/2025
 FACTORS AFFECTING DEFINITION
VIEWING FACTORS:- Can very in colour, intensity and
uniformity
 Modern x-ray illumination are fluorescent lighting not group
of electric bulbs and they give a uniform blue white light
 Illuminators are equipped with a control for altering
brightness so that condition can be adapted for viewing a
variety of radiographs

78 01/27/2025
 COLLIMATION
COLLIMATION:- The radiation energy received by
the image receptor during an exposure is from two
sources PRIMARY and SECONDARY radiation
 Collimation or beam-limiting devices, are used to
decrease the amount of unnecessary scatter radiation
to the patient. By decreasing scatter radiation, detail
and contrast in the image are increased.
79 01/27/2025
 COLLIMATION
 Tighter collimation of the beam has the effect of reducing
the area covered by the primary beam and therefore the
volume of the patient tissues irradiated. This in turn reduces
the amount of the scattered radiation reaching the film and
thus the total energy it receives
 As the x-ray field size is reduced by collimation, not only is
subject contrast improved, but also the intensity of the beam
reaching the film is reduced and an increase in the kVp or
mAs is necessary
80 01/27/2025
 COLLIMATION
Effect on Image:
 Improved Contrast: Reduces scatter radiation, leading to
higher image contrast.
 Reduced Fog: Less scatter results in less fogging of the film.
 Sharpness: Helps in achieving sharper images by minimizing
unnecessary radiation exposure to surrounding tissues.
 Reduced Patient Dose: Limits the exposure area, decreasing
the radiation dose to the patient.

81 01/27/2025
 TABLE TOP ATTENUATION
 Attenuation is the reduction of the intensity of an x-ray beam as
it traverses matter. The reduction may be caused by absorption or
by deflection (scatter) of photons from the beam and can be
affected by different factors such as beam energy and atomic
number of the absorber.
 Various materials and thickness are used in the construction of the
radiolucent top of the x-ray couch that supports the weight of the
patient
 Since different vary in the amount of attenuation they impose on
the x-ray beam, radiographing a patient through different couch top
82introduces an additional exposure variable 01/27/2025
 TABLE TOP ATTENUATION
Effect on Image:
 Reduced Image Intensity: Attenuation by the table reduces the
number of photons reaching the detector, which may reduce image
brightness.
 Artifacts: If the table is not uniform or calibrated, it can introduce
artifacts, affecting diagnostic quality.
 Compensation Needed: To counteract attenuation, exposure
factors like kVp or mAs might need adjustment.

83 01/27/2025
 CASSETTE ATTENUATION
 The incident x-ray beam must penetrate through the cassette
front in order to reach and activate the intensifying screen
inside
 A cassette with an aluminum alloy front need a greater
exposure than carbon fiber one; even though the two
cassette contain identical film screen combination
 A convenient way of comparing the attenuating properties of
the cassettes is to quote their aluminum equivalent at a
specified tube kilovoltage e.g. 1mm Al at 60kVp
84 01/27/2025
 CASSETTE ATTENUATION
Effect on Image:
 Reduced Photon Transmission: Leads to lower exposure
of the film or detector.
 Image Quality: Excessive attenuation can reduce image
brightness and may require compensation in exposure
settings.
 Material Influence: High-quality cassettes minimize
attenuation and preserve image quality.
85 01/27/2025
 GRID
SECONDARY GRID
 An X-ray grid is the part of an X-ray
machine that filters out randomly
deflected radiation that can obscure
or blur an image produced by the
machine
 Grids are placed between the patient
and the x-ray film to reduce the
scattered radiation reaching the
detector (produced mainly by the
Compton effect) and thus improve
86image contrast 01/27/2025
 SECONDARY GRID
Secondary radiation grids modify the amount of radiation
energy reaching the image receptor.
 By design the radiopaque slate of the grids attenuate
scattered radiation and therefore reduce the total energy
received by the film
 But primary radiation is also attenuated as it penetrates
through the protective grid cover and either the relatively
radiolucent interspaces as it strikes a radiopaque slat
 The effect of a grid in reducing the intensity of radiation
87
reaching the film is expressed as a grid factor 01/27/2025
 SECONDARY GRID
 The grid factor depends on the quality of radiation
concerned (tube kilovoltage ) as well as on the design
characteristics of the grid
 In general high-ratio grids attenuate the x-ray beam more
than the medium ratio while fine line grids may attenuate
more than coarse grids
 Use of carbon fiber as a grid cover material improve the
transmission properties of grids

88 01/27/2025
 GRIDS
 Contrast:
Absorption differences between tissues and grid usage both play a crucial role in
enhancing contrast, making it easier to distinguish between anatomical structures.
 Sharpness:
Grids reduce scatter, improving the sharpness of the image and minimizing fog.
 Diagnostic Value:
Optimal absorption ensures clear representation of structures. Grids ensure high-
quality images by eliminating the negative impact of scatter radiation.
 Exposure Settings:
Structures with high absorption and grid use require higher exposure, so careful
selection of technical factors is necessary to balance image quality and patient dose.

89 01/27/2025
 MANIPULATION OF EXPOSURE FACTORS
The need to manipulate exposure factors arises when condition
vary from the typical e.g.
I. The patient may unable to keep still during the exposure; the
radiographer must then modify the factors to minimize
exposure time
II. The patient may be badly injured; that a gridded cassette may
be used instead of a Potter Bucky
III. A supine antero- posterior chest radiograph may have to be
produced at an FFD rather less than the standard 180cm
90 01/27/2025
 MANIPULATION OF EXPOSURE FACTORS
In each of these cases the radiographer has two options
1. Try to memorize a different set of exposure factors for
each new set of circumstance
2. Learn how to adapt familiar exposure technique by
altering them to suit the new circumstances

91 01/27/2025
 MANIPULATION OF EXPOSURE FACTORS
 Altering the mAs affects the total x-ray beam produced by the x-ray
tube during the exposure; it does not affect the quality of the beam
 The x-ray output of the tube and the energy delivered to the image
receptor during the exposure both vary directly with the mAs e.g. if
the mAs is doubled the film screen system receives twice the
energy
 mAs is the product of two quantities
 The current (mA) flowing from the cathode to the anode of the x-
ray tube during the exposure
 The duration of the exposure in seconds
92 01/27/2025
 MANIPULATION OF EXPOSURE FACTORS
 Thus whatever the individual values of mA and exposure time: if their
product is constant the energy incident upon the image receptor is the
same e.g.
20mA for 1 sec
40mA for 0.5 sec
80mA for 0.25 sec
200mA for 0.1 sec
500mA for 0.04 sec
All these combination produce 20mA and all result in the same level of
radiation energy reaching the film
93 01/27/2025
 MANIPULATION OF EXPOSURE FACTORS
FOCAL SPOT
 The selection of mAs is the choice of size of the tube focus
 Most x-ray tubes offer two possible effective focal spot sizes known as
fine and broad focus
 The size combination differ in different x-ray tubes but common focal
spot pairing available are 0.6 &1.2mm , 0.3 &1,2mm and 0.4 & 0.8mm
FINE FOCUS:- Should be selected when geometric factors are likely to
limit image quality e.g. when object film distance is large
An ultrafine focus (0.3mm or less) is needed for microradiography
BROAD FOCUS:- Permit higher tube loading and enables maximum mA
to be used thus broad focus is necessary when a high mAs and minimum
94 exposure time are required 01/27/2025
 FILTRATION
FILTRATION:- As the x-ray beam emerges from the tube it
is modified by the effect of INHERENT and FILTRATION
 Increasing beam filtration produces both an increase in the
quality and a reduction in the intensity of the beam leaving
the x-ray tube
 Only the intensity of the beam reaching the image receptor
is affected by a change in filtration

95 01/27/2025
 FILTRATION
 The total filtration is defined as the sum of the additional
filtration by a filter, for the purpose of moving the diaphragm
and the radiation quality hardening inherent filtration, and the
x-ray by the x-ray tube apparatus itself, for the diagnostic x-
ray source device
 A filter is a circuit whose transfer function, that is the ratio of
its output to its input, depends upon frequency. There are three
broad categories of filter which are widely used: Low-pass
filters allow any input at a frequency below a characteristic
96 frequency to pass to its output unattenuated or even amplified.
01/27/2025
 THE USE OF FILTER
 Glass insert is an very proof metal housing
 The insert is smaller than its housing, the space between them
is filled with OIL both for INSULATION and COOLING
 The x-ray beam coming from fro the focal spot of the x-ray
tube therefore penetrates the glass envelope of the insert, the
oil surround and the port of the housing.
 These material acts as a filter on the beam, removing some of
the components of longer wavelength, the total effect is
known as INHERENT FILTRATION of the x-ray tube
97 01/27/2025
 THE USE OF FILTER
 The TOTAL FILTRATION of the x-ray tube is equivalent of 1 TO
2MM OF ALUMINUM. This is achieved by adding an ADDITIONAL
ALUMINUM filter to the x-ray tube materials is equivalent to 1 to 2
mm of aluminum
 Additional filters e.g. copper or iron may sometimes be added to
diagnostic tubes
IN SUMMARY
 Exposure time can be decreased when KILOVOLTAGE is raised,
MILLAMPERAGE is raised, TUBE FILM DISTANCE is shortened
 Exposure time must be increased when; KILOVOLTAGE is lowered
MILLIAMPERAGE is lowered, TUBE FILM DISTANCE is increased
98 01/27/2025
 THE USE OF FILTER
Effect on Image:
 Improved Beam Quality: Filtration removes low-energy
photons that contribute to patient dose without improving
image quality.
 Reduced Contrast: Excessive filtration may harden the x-
ray beam, reducing the differential attenuation between
tissues and lowering image contrast.
 Optimized Patient Dose: Minimizes unnecessary patient
99 exposure, particularly in soft tissues. 01/27/2025
DEVELOPER AND DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUE
 The effectiveness speed of a film material can be altered by
the composition of a developing solution and by the
technique development in use
 The constitution of the developer and the activity of the
developing agents in it, the degree of exhaustion, the
temperature of the solution, the development time, and the
with some films the amount of agitation given during
immersion in developer
100 01/27/2025
 DEVELOPER AND DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUE
Effect on Image:
 Contrast: Proper development time and temperature ensure
optimal contrast. Underdevelopment results in low contrast,
while overdevelopment increases contrast but may lose detail.
 Density: The developer influences the film's density. Insufficient
development leads to underexposed (light) images, while
excessive development causes overexposure (dark) images.
 Artifacts: Improper handling or chemical imbalance may lead
to streaks or uneven development.
101 01/27/2025
 ABSORPTION IN STRUCTURES RADIOGRAPHED

1) The exposure factors are selected to obtain a good

radiographic record of structures under examination
2) The choice of factors are modified by the structure
themselves, splints, pop, wood, aluminum etc.
3) Different structure need different exposure factors if a
radiograph of adequate density, penetration and contrast is
to be obtained.

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 ABSORPTION IN STRUCTURES RADIOGRAPHED
Effect on Radiographic Image:
 Contrast:
High Absorption (Radiopaque): Structures like bone, with a high
atomic number and density, absorb more x-rays, appearing white
or bright on the image.
 Low Absorption (Radiolucent): Structures like lungs (air-
filled) absorb fewer x-rays, appearing black or dark on the
image.
The variation in absorption between different tissues creates
contrast, critical for identifying structures.
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 ABSORPTION IN STRUCTURES RADIOGRAPHED

 Detail:
Differences in tissue composition enhance image detail. For example,
soft tissues like fat and muscle have subtle but discernible
absorption differences, aiding in diagnostics.
 Artifacts:
Uneven thickness or unexpected materials in the path of the beam
(e.g., metal implants) can cause artifacts, potentially obscuring
anatomical details.
 Beam Hardening:
Dense structures like bones can harden the beam, causing the
104 surrounding softer tissues to appear underexposed. 01/27/2025
 Kvp CORRECTION
Kvp CORRECTION
Increase in kVp may result in an image of the same average density but
reduction in radiographic contrast
10 KV RULE (RULE OF THUMB)
The rule states that increasing (or decreasing) the tube kilovoltage by 10kV
has about the same effect on image density as doubling ( or halving)the mAs.
Thus if mAs is cut by half raising the tube kilovoltage by ten restores the
image to its original density
Example 65kVp, 200mA, and 0.2sec. can be modified to 75kVp , 200mA and
0.1sec while image density remains the same (have the exposure time and
increasing the kVp by Ten)
105 01/27/2025
 PROGRAMMED EXPOSURE FACTORS
 Exposure errors can be eliminated by programming into the memory
of the x-ray unit various combinations of exposure factors appropriate
to the different radiographic projection of a wide range of anatomic
region of the body
 Automatic exposure device (AED), such as the semens Iontomat
greatly simplify exposure selection requiring only the kVp to be
chosen (one knob control)
 Anatomically programmed radiography (APR) systems used in
conjunction with automatic exposure devices simplify the selection of
exposure factors even further and should lead to a reduced incidence
106 of repeat radiograph 01/27/2025
 ARTIFACTS
DOUBLE IMAGES:- two images superimposed on top of each
other, may occur for instance exposed cassette is re-exposed before
the original film has been removed for processing
 Another source is by operating the x-ray unit exposure button
produced a double exposure
 Duplitized x-ray film carries two identical image one on each side
of its base
RESIDUAL SODIUM THIOSULPHATE in the film emulsion leads
to YELLOW BROWN stain on the film
107 01/27/2025
 ARTIFACTS
ARTIFACTS
CRIMPING :- pressure damage to the film emulsion if occurs BEFORE
the film is RADIOGRAPHICALLY EXPOSED the pressure mark
produced is WHITE, while if the damage occurs AFTER exposure this
mark is BLACK
CRINKLE MARKS :- are caused by BENT FILM
THE OVER OR UNDERPENETRATED RADIOGRAPH
The causes of over or underpenetrated radiograph is grouped into one of
three broad categories
I. Radiographer’s error
II. Equipment failure
III. Processing error
108 01/27/2025
 ARTIFACTS
RADIOGRAPHER ERRORS
I. Poor choice of exposure factors due to misjudgment of the patient
tissue thickness or tissue type
II. Failure to match exposure factors to the film-screen system
III. Use of non – standard focus film distance
IV. Lack of familiarity with the automatic exposure devices
 Grid cut- off e.g. due to angulation across the grid off – centering of
the beam or using the wrong focus –film distance.
 Grid cut –off or edge cut off produces a loss of image density

109 01/27/2025
 ARTIFACTS
EQUIPMENT FAILURE
i. Reduced x-ray tube output e.g. when the tube is near the end of its working
life
ii. Premature termination of exposure e.g. due to faulty exposure timing
mechanism
iii. Inadequate mains electrical supply especially during ward radiography
PROCESSING ERROR
 Due to abnormal developer temperature or in appropriate developer
replenishment rate

110 01/27/2025
 ARTIFACTS
POOR CONTRAST & FOGGING
 The combined effect of subject contrast, film or screen contrast and fogging
determined the radiographic contrast in the final radiograph
RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST = subject contrast + screen contrast – fogging
 Selection of very high kilovoltage result in a low contrast radiograph and also
film processing condition may suffer rapid changes, which could lead to a
screen deterioration in radiographic contrast
 Fogging is a common cause of loss of radiographic contrast and may be due to
safelight fogging or x-radiation fogging

111 01/27/2025
 ARTIFACTS
FOGGING
MAY BE DUE TO
1. X-RADIATION :- may be due to scatter generated when the
radiograph was exposed or to background radiation due to poor
storage of the unexposed film
2. SAFELIGHTING:- the patient identification area is affected
more higher then the rest of the film
3. WHITE LIGHT:- produces total blacking of the affected area

112 01/27/2025
 ARTIFACTS
GRAININESS
CAN EITHER BE CAUSED BY
i. STRUCTURE MOTTLE:- under abnormal condition e.g. excessive
processing temperature, the silver grains may be clump together to
form particles which may be coarse enough to give the image a
grainy appearance . The phosphor grains in the fluorescent layer of
an intensifying screen may also produce graininess
ii. QUANTUM MOTTLE:- the use of a high speed rare- earth
intensifying screen combined with low mAs exposure may result in
the appearance of the quantum mottle on the radiograph
 magnified film – screen system has high contrast characteristics
113 01/27/2025
114 01/27/2025
 IMAGE ARTIFACTS (SUNDRY MARKS)
Artifacts can be on the surface of film or superimposed on its image
1. SCREEN MARKS:- any deposit on the surface of an
intensifying screen in a cassette interrupt light in its passage
from the screen phosphor to the film emulsion resulting in a
sharply define image artifact which appear white on the
radiograph screen marks may be cause by dust particle stuff,
hair or other foreign matter inside the cassette or by surface
stretches or other damage to the intensifying screen supercoat

115 01/27/2025
 IMAGE ARTIFACTS (SUNDRY MARKS)
3.PRESSURE MARKS:- the application of UNDUE PRESSURE or STRESS TO
FILM EMULSION before or during development may result in PRESSURE
MARKS appearing on the radiographic image
 Careless handling of film in the darkroom is major cause of pressure marks e.g.
CRESCENT-SHAPED (crimp mark) which may appear either DARK (on LIGHT
BACKGROUND) or LIGHT (on A DARK BACKGROUND)
 Crimp marks occur during handling if a film becomes kinked or creased when it
droops under its own weight if supported only near its edge
 Automatic daylight film –handling system eliminate those faults which are
associated with the handling of film by the human operator; but it introduce
another artifacts which occur during the mechanized handling of film (STATIC
MARKS)
116 01/27/2025
 IMAGE ARTIFACTS (SUNDRY MARKS)
STORAGE :- Larger white pressure marks may be produced by poor film-storage
conditions, e.g. by STACKING BOXES OF FILM HORIZONTALLY on top of
one another rather than on edge
4. STATIC MARKS:- The static electrical charges accumulate as a result of
FRICTION, TRIGGERS chemical changes in the emulsion which mimic
exposure and result in characteristic black STATIC MARKS on the radiographic
image
 Can occur during the transport systems of rapid film changers, the feed
mechanism of the film processor or cassette loading and unloading activities or
cloth (nylon) generating static charges
 Depending on their appearance static marks may be
 Tree static, Crown static, Pin static or Crow’s feet

117 01/27/2025
 IMAGE ARTIFACTS (SUNDRY MARKS)
IMAGE ARTIFACTS (SUNDRY MARKS)
5. FINGER MARKS:- Handling the surface of a film with the fingers
before it has been processed form the artifacts
 Moisture transferred to the film surface from the skin modifies the
action of developer during processing and may produce finger print
marks on the radiograph
 Automated film –handling eliminate these problems
6. CHEMICAL STAINING:- Inadequate fixing or washing during film
processing leads to eventual yellow or brown staining of the image
due to the presence in the emulsion of unstable sulphur compounds
118 01/27/2025
 IMAGE ARTIFACTS (SUNDRY MARKS)
7. SURFACE DAMAGE:- Film emulsion is delicate and prone to
damage during processing. A badly adjusted processor film
transport system may cause abrasions to the emulsion surface e.g.
Pi marks suggest damage produced by one of the transport rollers
in the film processor.
 To detect surface damage radiograph should be viewed both by
REFLECTED LIGHT & TRANSMITTED LIGHT
 The damage can at a time affect only one side of the radiograph
 Under adverse processing conditions the emulsion may partially
detach from its base, causing RETICULATION or FRILLING
119 01/27/2025
 IMAGE ARTIFACTS (SUNDRY MARKS)
8. RADIOPAQUE ARTEFACTS:- The presence of radiopaque
artifacts in the path of the x-ray beam produces image opacities
which may obscure or confuse vital anatomical detail
 For instance a damaged secondary radiation grid may produce a
linear marking which could be mistaken for a fracture line.
 A trace of barium sulphate contrast agent on a patient’s gown
could be identified mistakenly as chest lesion

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 THANK YOU

122 01/27/2025