DATA TRANSMISSION

G10
CONTENT
❏ TYPES AND METHODS OF DATA TRANSMISSION
❏ HOW DATA IS BROKEN INTO DATA PACKETS BEFORE TRANSMISSION
❏ THE STRUCTURE of data packets (header,payload,trailer)
❏ Packet switching(including the role of router)
❏ Methods of data transmission (serial,parallel,simplex,half-duplex and full duplex)
❏ METHODS OF ERROR DETECTION
❏ WHY ERROR CHECKING METHODS ARE NEEDED
❏ ERROR CHECKING METHODS FOLLOWING DATA TRANSMISSION
❏ PARITY CHECK CHECKSUM ECHO CHECK
❏ USE OF CHECK DIGITS TO DETECT DATA ENTRY ERRORS
❏ USE OF AUTOMATIC REPEAT REQUESTS (ARQs) TO DETECT ERRORS
❏ ENCRYPTION
❏ THE NEED FOR AND THE PURPOSE OF ENCRYPTION
❏ SYMMETRIC AND ASYMMETRIC ENCRYPTION
❏ USE OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE KEYS
DATA TRANSMISSION

Data transmission refers to the transfer

of data between devices, typically in a
computer network.

There are several types and methods

used for transmitting data, depending on
the situation, distance, and devices
involved.
Data packets
When data is transmitted across a network, it is broken down into smaller,
manageable units called data packets(datagrams).
Each packet contains a part of the original data, along with additional
information needed to ensure that the data can be transmitted correctly
and reassembled at its destination.
DATA
PACKETS Original
DATA data and
metadata
Data
packe
t
Structure of a Data Packet
● HEADER
● PAYLOAD
● TRAILER
Structure of a Data
Packet
HEADER
:Contains important information about the packet, such as:

○ Source Address: The address of the device that is sending the data.
○ Destination Address: The address of the device that should receive the
data.
○ Packet Number: Indicates the order of the packets so they can be
reassembled correctly.
○ Protocol Information: Specifies the communication protocol being used
(e.g., TCP, UDP).(Protocol information is required in error handling)
PAYLOAD,TRAILER
Payload:

● This is the actual part of the data being transmitted (a chunk of the original message,
file, or email).
● Purpose: Contains the user data or content that is being sent.

Trailer (or Footer):(someway of identifying end of the packets)

● Contains error-checking information (often using methods like checksums or cyclic

redundancy check (CRC)) to ensure the packet arrived without any issues.
● Purpose: Ensures the packet is not corrupted during transmission.
REAL LIFE EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE 1: SENDING AN EMAIL

● When you send an email, the text, any attachments, and images are broken down into data
packets.
● These packets travel through the network to the recipient’s email server.
● At the server, the packets are reassembled to recreate the original message and
attachments.

Example 2: Streaming a Video

● When you watch a video on a streaming service, the video data is broken into thousands
of data packets and sent to your device.
● As you watch, these packets are reassembled in real time to show the video on your screen.
● If a packet is delayed or lost, you might experience buffering or a momentary glitch in the
video.
EXAMPLE

1. Breaking the File into

Packets:
2. Each Packet is
Labeled:
3. Sending the Packets:
4. Reassembling the
Packets:
5. Error Checking:
EXAMPLE OF DATA PACKETS
Let's say you're sending a large file, like a photo, via email. The file is too large to send in one piece, so the
network breaks it into smaller data packets. Here's how it works:

1. Breaking the File into Packets:

○ The photo is divided into smaller parts (packets), with each packet carrying a portion of the image.
2. Each Packet is Labeled:
○ Each packet is given a header that includes the source address (your computer’s address), the
destination address (your friend’s computer or email server), and a packet number (e.g., 1 of 10,
2 of 10, etc.).
3. Sending the Packets:
○ The packets travel across the internet, possibly taking different routes depending on network traffic.
4. Reassembling the Packets:
○ When all the packets reach the destination, the receiving device uses the packet numbers to put
them back in the correct order.
5. Error Checking:
○ The trailer of each packet is used to check for errors. If any packet is corrupted or missing, the
receiving device can request that specific packet to be resent.
Why Are Data Packets Important?
IMPORTANCE OF DATA PACKETS
● Efficiency: Breaking data into packets allows it to be transmitted more
efficiently across networks. Each packet can take the best route to reach
its destination.
● Error Handling: If a packet is lost or corrupted, only that specific packet
needs to be resent, rather than the entire file or message.
● COMPATIBILITY- Packet-switching networks allow different types of
devices and networks to communicate with each other, regardless of their
hardware or operating systems.
SWITCHING
In networking
The process of exchanging information between two communication devices by
transferring data packets through a network switch.
PACKET SWITCHING
Packet switching is a method used in data transmission where data is
broken down into smaller, manageable units called packets before being sent
across a network.

These packets are transmitted independently and can take different routes
to reach their destination.

Once they arrive, the packets are reassembled in the correct order to
recreate the original data.
PACKET SWITCHING
STEPS OF PACKET SWITCHING
1. Data is Broken Down into Packets:
○ When you send data (like an email, a file, or a message), it's split into smaller pieces called
packets.
○ Each packet contains a piece of the data along with important information such as the
destination address, source address, and a sequence number (which indicates the order of
the packet).
2. Each Packet Takes a Different Route:
○ Once the packets are created, they are sent out over the network. Each packet can take a
different route based on the availability of paths and network conditions like congestion.
○ Key Point: Since each packet may travel a different route, they don't all arrive at the
destination in the same order.
3. A Router Controls the Route a Packet Takes:
○ Routers are devices that help direct packets through the network. They act like traffic
managers, deciding which path each packet should take based on network traffic and
the most efficient route available at the time.
○ Example: If there is congestion on one route, a router might send a packet on an alternate
route to avoid delays.
● Packets May Arrive Out of Order:
○ Because packets can take different routes, they may not arrive at the destination in
the same order they were sent. For example, packet 4 might arrive before packet 2,
depending on network conditions.
● Reordering of Packets at the Destination:
○ When all the packets have reached their destination, they are reordered using the
sequence numbers included in the packet headers.
○ Once they are in the correct order, the packets are reassembled into the original data
(such as the complete file, email, or message).

○ Error Handling: If any packet is missing or corrupted, the destination can request
that specific packet to be resent, ensuring accurate data transmission.
MESSAGE SWITCHING EXAMPLE
Real-Life Example: Email
A practical real-life example of message switching is email communication:

● Sending an Email: When you send an email, it is treated as a message that needs to be
routed from your email client to the recipient's email client.
● Storage and Forwarding:
1. Sending: The email is first sent to your email server, where it is stored temporarily.
2. Routing: The email server processes the message and determines the best route to
the recipient's email server, which may involve passing through several intermediate
servers.
3. Delivery: The email is then forwarded to the recipient's email server, where it is stored
until the recipient checks their email.
ERROR HANDLING- CRC
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is a method used to detect errors in data transmission. It helps
ensure that data sent over a network arrives without mistakes. If there’s an error, CRC detects it so that
the data can be resent or corrected.

CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) is like a secret code that makes sure data (like a
file or message) is sent correctly.

It works by adding a check number (CRC code) to the data.

When the data arrives, the receiver checks the number to see if it matches. If it
matches, everything is fine! If not, there’s an error, and the data needs to be resent.
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
Polynomial division
Data word to be sent - 100100
Key - 1101 [ Or generator polynomial x3 + x2 + 1]

Digits in key-1=no of digits to append(3)

HOW CRC WORKS?

1. Data is Prepared:
○ Imagine you’re sending a message or file. Before it is sent, the computer performs a special
calculation on the data to create a check number (called a CRC code).
2. CRC Code is Added:
○ The check number (CRC code) is added to the data in the trailer section of the packet. This is like
adding a "receipt" to the end of the data to make sure it arrives safely.
3. Data is Sent:
○ The data, along with the CRC code, is sent to the receiver.
4. CRC Check on the Other Side:
○ When the data arrives at its destination, the receiving computer performs the same calculation to
generate a new check number based on the received data.
5. Compare Check Numbers:
○ The receiving computer compares the new check number with the original CRC code that came
with the data.
■ If they match: The data arrived correctly without errors.
■ If they don’t match: Something went wrong during transmission, and there’s an error in the
data.
6. Fixing the Error:
○ If the CRC detects an error, the receiver can request that the sender resend the data.
How Does the Receiver Know the CRC Code to Compare?

1. Sender Generates the CRC Code

Before sending the data, the sender performs a CRC calculation on the
data.( Polynomial Division -Similar to normal division method done
using binary numbers)
● This calculation produces a CRC code (also called the checksum or
remainder), which is a short series of binary digits.
● The sender then attaches the CRC code to the data packet. This combined packet
includes both the original data and the CRC code.
2. Sending the Data with the CRC Code
● The data packet, which now contains the original data and the CRC code, is
transmitted across the network to the receiver.
● For example, if you’re sending a file, the data is broken into packets, and each packet
includes its own CRC code at the end.

3. Receiver Recalculates the CRC Code

● When the receiver gets the data packet, it separates the original data from the CRC
code that was sent with it.
● The receiver then recalculates the CRC code by performing the same mathematical
calculation on the data that the sender used.
4. Comparing the CRC Codes
● The receiver compares the CRC code it just calculated with the CRC code that was
sent along with the data.
● If the two CRC codes match: This means the data was transmitted correctly without
any errors.
● If the two CRC codes don’t match: It means that an error occurred during
transmission (the data might be corrupted), and the receiver knows that the data is
faulty.

What Happens If There’s an Error?

● If the CRC codes don’t match, the receiver will typically request the sender to
retransmit the corrupted data.
● This ensures that the data is received correctly the second time.
CRC
Types of Data Transmission
1. Analog Transmission
○ Involves sending data using continuous signals, which vary in amplitude or
frequency over time.
○ Example: Telephone lines, where voices are converted into analog signals and
transmitted.
2. Digital Transmission
○ Involves transmitting data as discrete signals, usually in the form of binary (0s
and 1s).
○ Example: Sending emails or data over a computer network.
Methods of Data Transmission
https://youtu.be/EwGoQVYIZWo

1. Serial Transmission
○ Data is transmitted one bit at a time over a single channel.
○ Key Point: It is slow compared to parallel transmission but more reliable for long-
distance communication.
○ Usage: Typically used in USB connections, communication between computers
and peripheral devices (e.g., mouse or keyboard).
○ Real-Life Example: When you plug in a USB drive, it transfers data using serial
transmission.
1. Parallel Transmission

○ Multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously across multiple channels.

○ Key Point: It is faster than serial transmission but suitable for short distances due
to synchronization issues over longer distances.
○ Usage: Often used in older systems for internal data transfers, such as between a
computer and its printer or other peripherals.
○ Real-Life Example: Parallel communication was common in older printers, using
a parallel port to transfer multiple bits at once.
Methods Based on Direction of Data Flow(communication modes)

1. Simplex Transmission– Data flows in one direction only, from the sender to
the receiver.
○ Key Point: The receiver can only receive data and cannot send any back.
○ Usage: Used in systems where feedback is not required.
○ Real-Life Example: A TV remote control, which only sends signals to the
TV without receiving anything back.
Half-Duplex Transmission

○ Data can flow in both directions, but only one direction at a time.
○ Key Point: One device sends data while the other waits, and then the roles
reverse.
○ Usage: Useful in situations where only one device needs to transmit at a
time.
○ Real-Life Example: Walkie-talkies, where only one person speaks while
the other listens, then the roles switch.
1. Full-Duplex Transmission

○ Data flows in both directions simultaneously, allowing continuous

communication.
○ Key Point: Both devices can send and receive data at the same
time.
○ Usage: Used in modern communication systems requiring real-
time feedback.
○ Real-Life Example: Telephone calls, where both people can talk
and listen at the same time without interrupting each other.
Suitability of Transmission Methods

● Serial vs. Parallel Transmission:

○ Serial: Better for long-distance communication because it’s less prone
to interference and synchronization problems.
○ Parallel: Better for short distances where speed is more important
than accuracy.
● Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full-Duplex:
○ Simplex: Suitable for applications like broadcasting, where feedback isn’t
required (e.g., TV or radio signals).
○ Half-Duplex: Suitable for situations where alternating communication is
required (e.g., walkie-talkies or two-way radios).
○ Full-Duplex: Essential for real-time communication (e.g., phone calls,
video conferencing).
USB- Universal Serial Bus

● USB is a widely-used interface that allows devices to connect to computers for data
transfer and power supply.
● Features:
○ Plug-and-play: Automatically detects connected devices.
○ Power supply: Provides power to devices like smartphones or keyboards while also transferring
data.
○ Versions: USB 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, and the latest USB-C, each offering faster data transfer rates.
● Real-Life Example:
○ Connecting a USB flash drive to transfer files between computers.
○ Charging smartphones via USB ports on computers or chargers.
● Workout:
○ Plug in a USB drive and access its files.
○ Connect your phone to a computer via USB to charge and transfer data.
Hop Count
https://youtu.be/xXqaavyqQ78?si=NA64mw0dqKMUlV81
 White and Green, which carry data, and
Red and Black, which are used for power.

https://youtu.be/pIZREjck9jg?
si=MaD2HChQfqBef8Nh
WHY ERROR CHECKING IS NEEDED?
● Error checking ensures that data sent over a network arrives correctly without any
corruption.
● Importance:
○ Data transmission errors can occur due to network congestion,
interference, or hardware faults.
○ Without error checking, incorrect or incomplete data could lead to software
malfunctions, corrupted files, or security issues.

● Example: Sending an email attachment over the internet. Without error checking,
the file might get corrupted, and the recipient would receive unusable data.
PARITY CHECK
● A parity check adds a bit to the data to make sure the total number of 1s is either
even (even parity) or odd (odd parity).
● How It Works:
○ Even parity: The number of 1s in the data must be even. A parity bit is added
to ensure this.
○ Odd parity: The number of 1s in the data must be odd.
● Example:
○ Data: 1011 (three 1s), using even parity, a parity bit of 1 is added to make the
number of 1s even (10111).
● Limitations: Can only detect single-bit errors, not multiple errors.
● Real-Life Example: Used in simple data transmission systems, such as early
modems.(ONE DIRECTION) .
● Radio and TV transmissions, as well as desktop input devices like keyboards and mice.
EXAMPLE
1 1 0 1 1 0 0

PARITY BIT

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0

EVEN
PARIT
Y

1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0

ODD
PARIT
Y
EVEN PARITY USED

1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1

ODD PARITY USED

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1

EVEN /ODD PARITY

0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0

4 1 -BITS

0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0

BYTE IS CORRUPTED BUT THE EVEN PARITY IS

RETAINED SO NO ERROR WOULD BE FLAGGED
Parity block- even parity (2d)
Column

Parity byte

Row Parity byte

 EVEN PARITY
PARITY BLOCK AGREEMENT
Even parity check agreement
CHECKSUM
A checksum is a value calculated from the data and sent along with it. The receiver
recalculates the checksum and compares it to the one sent. If they match, the data is
correct.

● How It Works:
○ The sender calculates a sum of all the data bytes and appends this sum (the
checksum) to the packet.
○ The receiver recalculates the sum and compares it.
● Real-Life Example: Used in downloading files to ensure they haven’t been corrupted
during transfer.
● Workout:
○ Download a large file and check its checksum to verify the file’s integrity.
IMAGINE SENDING 10,20,30,40
Adding the Numbers Together
: First, we add up the numbers:
10+20+30+40=100
10 + 20 + 30 + 40 = 100
So, the checksum is 100.
Recieve and verify
1. Sending the Numbers and Checksum: Now, when we send these numbers to a friend, we
also send the checksum value of 100.
2. Receiving and Verifying: When your friend receives the numbers, they also add them up to
see if they match the checksum:
10+20+30+40=100
3. If the sum matches the checksum (100), then they know the numbers are correct.
○ But if the sum is not 100, they’ll know something went wrong, and they can ask you to
resend the numbers.

Example Question
● Q: If we send the numbers 10, 20, 30, and 40 with a checksum of 100, but your friend
receives 10, 20, and 30 only, what would the sum be, and what does it tell them?
● A: The sum would be 10 + 20 + 30 = 60, which is not equal to 100. This tells them some
data is missing, so they need to ask for a resend.
Clue 1: Go to the big tree.
Clue 2: Turn right at the river.
Clue 3: Dig under the X.
Calculate the Checksum:
To create a checksum, you can assign a simple value to each clue. Let’s say each letter
counts as 1 point. Here’s how you would calculate it:
Count the letters in each clue:
Clue 1: 20 letters
Clue 2: 25 letters
Clue 3: 18 letters
Total: 20 + 25 + 18 = 63
You decide to keep the checksum number 63 to check later.
Send the Treasure Map:
You send the treasure map along with the checksum number (63) to your friend.
Echo Check
● After data is sent, the receiver immediately sends it back to the sender for
verification.
● How It Works:
○ The sender sends data.
○ The receiver sends the same data back (echo).
○ The sender checks whether the echoed data matches the original.
● Real-Life Example: Echo checks were often used in older
telecommunication systems to ensure data integrity.
● Limitations: Time-consuming and inefficient for large data transmissions.
Check Digits for Data Entry Errors
CHECK DIGIT
https://www.gs1.org/services/check-digit-calculator
● International Standard Book Numbers (ISBN) and Vehicle
Identification Numbers
● Check digits are used to identify errors in data entry caused by
mis-typing or mis-scanning a barcode
● an incorrect digit entered, for example 5327 entered instead of
5307
● Transposition errors where two numbers have changed order,
For example 5037 instead of 5307
● omitted or extra digits, for example 537 instead of 5307 or
53107 instead of 5307
● phonetic errors, for example 13 (thirteen), instead of 30 (thirty).
METHODS OF CHECK DIGITS

» ISBN 13 -The check digit in ISBN 13 is the

thirteenth digit in the number
» Modulo-11-
 ISBN-13
● The first calculation is the generation of the check digit.
● The second calculation is a verification of the check digit
(that is, a recalculation).

The check digit is calculated based on the other digits in the

sequence.

When the entire number (including the check digit) is scanned

or entered, a recalculation of the check digit is performed.

If the recalculated check digit matches the one in the code, the
data is likely accurate.
ISBN-13
MODULO-11
MODULO-11
MODULO-11
Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)

● ARQ is an error detection and correction method where the

receiver asks the sender to resend data if errors are detected.
● How It Works:
○ If the data is incorrect (due to a mismatch in CRC, checksum,
etc.), the receiver sends a request for the sender to retransmit
the data.
● Real-Life Example: Used in Wi-Fi networks to ensure data
packets are correctly received and retransmitted when errors
occur.
Symmetric Encryption
● In symmetric encryption, the same key is used to both encrypt and decrypt the data.
● How It Works:
○ The sender encrypts the data using a key, and the receiver uses the same key to
decrypt it.
● Real-Life Example:
○ Wi-Fi passwords use symmetric encryption (WPA2). Both your device and the
router use the same password (key) to encrypt and decrypt the internet traffic.
● Workout: Use file encryption software like 7-Zip to encrypt a file using a password,
then decrypt it using the same password.
Asymmetric Encryption
● Definition: Asymmetric encryption uses two keys: a public key to encrypt the
data and a private key to decrypt it.
● How It Works:
○ The sender encrypts the data using the recipient's public key. Only the
recipient can decrypt it using their private key.
● Real-Life Example:
○ Email encryption: Services like PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) use
asymmetric encryption. You share your public key with anyone who
wants to send you an encrypted email, and only you can decrypt it using
your private key.
SUMMARY

● Key Topics: USB, error detection methods (parity, checksum, echo check),
encryption (symmetric, asymmetric), and the use of public and private keys.
● Takeaways: Error detection ensures data accuracy; encryption ensures data
security.
● Final Real-Life Example: Think of online banking, where USB devices (like card
readers) are used for secure login, error detection ensures data is not corrupted,
and encryption protects your transactions.