TOPIC:
HISTORY AND SCOPE OF MICROBIOLOGY
Introduction
Microorganisms and the environment
Characteristics of microorganisms.
Importance of microorganisms.
Nomenclature.
Tools in microbiology.
History/discovery of microbes.
INTRODUCTION
• The study of microorganisms is called Microbiology, a
subject that began with Antony van Leeuwenhoek’s
discovery of microorganisms in 1675, using a microscope of
his own design.
• Microbe is a short form of microorganism meaning small
organism. This term was first used in 1878 by Sedillot
• Microorganisms are organisms that are too tiny to be seen
with the naked eyes except with the help of a microscope.
They are the oldest form of life on the surface the earth.
• Microbiology constitutes of branches:parasitology,
bacteriology,virology,mycology,immunology e.t.c
MICRORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
• Found almost everywhere.
• Found all over the skin even on our eyelashes.
• In the intestine where they help in food digestion
• The ones that has chloroplast like algae help in
photosynthesis.
• Soil microbes helps to break down down plant and animal
matter into smaller particles turning it to matter that
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROORGANISMS
• They are the oldest and smallest form of life on the surface of
the earth.
• Microbes can be found almost everywhere(in air, soil, food,
water,and in the body e.t.c.
• Most microorganisms do not cause diseases and many are
beneficial.
• They may be single-celled or multicellular.
• They may be composed of prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells.
• They play complex and unique roles within the ecosystem.
DIVERSITY OF MICROORGANISMS
Microorganisms are very diverse; they are divided into five
basic types which includes:
1. bacteria
2. Fungi,
3. Algae,
4. Protozoa
5. Viruses.
Each type has a characteristic cellular composition,
morphology, means of locomotion, and reproduction.
1.Bacteria
They are Prokaryotes(no cell nucleus)
Possess peptidoglycan cell walls
Reproduce by binary fission
Example: Escherichia coli
2.Fungi
They are eukaryotes(cell nucleus)
Have Chitin cell walls
they are unicellular(molds and mushroom) and
multicellular(yeast
3.Algae
They are eukaryotes.
Have cellulose cell walls.
They are Photosynthetic.
Produce molecular oxygen and organic compounds.
They are part of food chain.
4.Protozoa
Eukaryotes.
Mostly saprobes and commensals
May be motile by means of pseudopod, cilia or flagella
5.virus
• Simpler and smaller than prokaryotes
• Contains only a smaller amount of genetic material
wrapped in a protein capsule.
• Cannot reproduce on its own;require host cell to inject
their DNA or RNA into.
• Relies on the cellular machinery of the host cell to replicate
the viral genetic material for it.
Characteristics of prokaryotes
• Represent earliest form of life on earth.
• Smaller and simple due to lack of several cellular material.
• And almost always single-celled
• Are broken into two categories: bacteria and archaea.
• Lacks nucleus to hold the cells DNA and lacks any sort of
organized packaging or housing to hold the rest of the cell
machinery.
characteristics of Eukaryotes
• Larger and more complex than prokaryotes
• Possess nucleus which neatly houses the DNA
• Self sufficient due to its several different organelles found
in it e.g.golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, ribosomes as well as chloroplasts in
photosynthesis cells.
• Examples of includes fungi, algae, protozoa and various
microscopic parasitic worms.
Importance of Microorganisms
• Useful in studying molecular biology,biochemistry and
genetics.
• Used in Vaccine development.
• Production of antibiotics.
• Production of important biological enzymes (insulin).
• Production of beer, wine, cheeses and yogurt.
• Maintenance of soil fertility/digestion in cattle and
human.
• Help in degrading toxic waste materials.
Nomenclature
Scientist Linnaeus introduced the binomial system
of scientific nomenclature.it involves the genus and
the species epithet.
Each organism has two names: the genus and
species epithet
Italicized or underline
Genus name is capitalized and species in lower case.
examples:
Staphylococcus aureus
describes clustered arrangement of cells and
golden yellow color of colonies
Escherichia coli
Honors the discoverer, Theodor Escherich and
describes its habitat, the colon.
After the first use, scientific names may be
abbreviated with the first letter of the genus and
full species epithet. (Ex: E. coli)
Tools of Microbiology
Compound light Microscope
- Used to view live specimens.
Electron Microscope
- Used to view non-living specimens.
Incubator –used to keep microbes warm for growth
Staining dye – used to see structures better
Microbial Culture – the act of growing microbes.
Petri dish-Container for microbe culture
Culture media: Food for the microbes. e.g. Agar – (from red
algae).Others such as nutrient broths
Autoclave-for sterilization of materials.
HISTORY/DISCOVERY OF MICROBIOLOGY
• The history of microbiology involved four major
eras which includes:
i. Discovery era.
ii. Transition era.
iii. Golden era.
iv. Modern era
DISCOVERY ERA
• Discovery era:
• Aristotle (384-322) and others believed that living organisms
could develop from non-living materials(e.g maggots arising
from decaying meat). This belief gave rise to a debate which was
referred to as “Spontaneous Generation Theory’’ :
• Spontaneous Generation Theory states that living organisms
develop from non living matter.
• Antony van Leeuwenhoek’s discovered microorganisms in 1675,
using a microscope of his own design.
• He is the father of Bacteriology and protozoology. In 1676, he
discovered, observed and described microorganisms such as
TRANSITION ERA
• In transition era, Francesco Redi between (1626 -
1697) showed that maggots would not arise from
decaying meat, when it is covered.
• John Needham (1713–1781) Supported the
spontaneous generation theory..
• Lazzaro spallanzai (1729 – 1799). He demonstrated
that air carried germs to the culture medium.
• He showed that boiled broth would not give rise to
microscopic forms of life.
GOLDEN ERA
GOLDEN ERA: In this era, Louis Pasteur Showed
microbes caused fermentation.
• He studied spoilage and introduced “Pasteurization”
to prevent it.
• Louis Pasteur is the father of Medical Microbiology.
• Pasteur in 1897 suggested that mild heating at
62.8°C (145°F) for 30 minutes rather than boiling
was enough to destroy the undesirable organisms
without ruining the taste of the product, the process
was called Pasteurization
• He invented the processes of pasteurization,
fermentation and the development of effective
vaccines ( rabies and anthrax).
• Pasteur demonstrated diseases of silkworm was due to
a protozoan parasite.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF LOIUS PASTEUR:
• He coined the term “microbiology”, aerobic,
anaerobic.
• He disproved the theory of spontaneous generation.
• He demonstrated that anthrax was caused by bacteria
and also produced the vaccine for the disease.
• He developed live attenuated vaccine for the disease.
He was the first to use agar as solid culture medium
in bacteriology..
• In 1876 - Robert Koch provided proof that a
bacterium causes anthrax using experimental steps
now called the Koch’s Postulates
KOCH'S POSTULATES:
The microbe must always be present in every case
of the disease
It must be isolated in pure culture on artificial
media
When inoculated into healthy animal host it should
produce the same disease
It must be isolated from the diseased animal again.
• Fanne Eilshemius Hesse (1850 - 1934).He is one
of Koch's assistant first proposed the use of
agar in culture media.
• It was not attacked by most bacteria.
• Agar is better than gelatin because of its higher
melting pointing (96°c) and solidifying (40 –
45°c)points.
• Richard Petri (1887). He developed the Petri
dish (plate), a container used for solid culture
media
• Edward Jenner (1749-1823).First to prevent small
pox.He discovered the technique of vaccination.
• Alexander Flemming(1945).He discovered the
penicillin from penicillium notatum that destroy
several pathogenic bacteria.
• Paul Erlich (1920).He discovered the treatment of
syphilis by using arsenic.He Studied toxins and
antitoxins in quantitative terms & laid foundation
of biological standardization
MODERN ERA
• MODERN ERA: It’s the Nobel Laureates Years.
• In 1901 Von behring: discovered Diptheria antitoxin
• 1902 Ronald Ross: ,, Malaria
• 1905 Robert koch : ,, Tuberculosis
• 1908 Metchnikoff: ,, Phagocytosis
• 1945 Flemming : ,, Penicillin
• 1962 Watson,Crick : ,, DNA structure
• 1968 Holley,Khorana : ,, Genetic code
• 1997 Pruisne: ,, Prions
• 2002 Brenner, Hervitz : ,, Genetic regulation of
organ development &cell death
Modern Microbiology
Modern microbiology reaches into many fields of human endeavor,
including
• the development of pharmaceutical products,
• the use of quality‐control methods in food and dairy product production,
• the control of disease‐causing microorganisms in consumable waters,
and the industrial applications of microorganisms.
• Microorganisms are used to produce vitamins, amino acids, enzymes,
and growth supplements.
• They manufacture many foods, including fermented dairy products (sour
cream, yogurt, and buttermilk), as well as other fermented foods such as
pickles, sauerkraut, breads, and alcoholic beverages.
• In biotechnology, microorganisms are used as living factories to
produce pharmaceuticals that otherwise could not be manufactured.
These substances include the human hormone insulin, the antiviral
substance interferon, numerous blood‐clotting factors and clot
dissolving enzymes, and a number of vaccines.
OTHER IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES
Bacteria:
• Hansen (1874) – discovered Leprosy bacllus
• Neisser (1879) – ,, Gonococcus
• Ogston (1881) – ,, Staphylococcus
• Loeffler (1884) – ,, Diphtheria bacillus
• Roux and Yersin – ,, Diphtheria toxin
Viruses:
• Beijerinck (1898) - Coined the term Virus for filterable infectious
agents.
• Pasteur developed Rabies vaccine.
• Charles Chamberland, one of Pasteur’s associates constructed a
porcelain bacterial filter.
• Twort and d’Herelle – discovered Bacteriophages.
GRAM STAINING
Reagents: Crystal Violet, Iodine, Ethyl alcohol (95%), Safranin
Principle: The Grams staining (developed by Dr. Hans Christian Gram) is
used to differentiate the bacterial cell into two major groups Gram positive and
Gram negative which makes it an essential tool for classification and
differentiation of microorganisms. Crystal violet is used as a primary stain and
iodine acts as a mordant which increases the affinity of the cells for the stain.
Ethyl alcohol 95% is used as de-colorizing agent, which acts as lipid solvent
and also as protein dehydrating agent, Safranin is used as the secondary stain.
Procedure
1. Thin smears of the isolated different colonies were prepared, air dried, and
heat fixed.
2. Smear was covered with crystal violet for 60 seconds.
3. The stain was washed off using distilled water. The excess water was
drained off.
4. The smear was covered with Gram’s iodine solution and kept for 60
seconds.
5. The Gram’s iodine was poured off and the smear was flooded with 95%
alcohol for 30 seconds. The slide was washed with distilled water.
6. The counter stain Safranin was added to smear and was kept
for 60 seconds. The stain was washed gently for few seconds.
7. The slide was air dried and, examined with a light
microscope under oil immersion.
