COMPUTER

ARCHITECTURE &
ORGANIZATION
INTRODUCTION
 OVERVIEW:
Introduction to Computer Organization and Architecture
 Understanding of Computer
Computer Architecture
1. Computer System – General Purpose System and Embedded
System
2. History of Computer Architecture - Von Neuman Architecture
3. The CPU
4. Fetching, decoding, execution of data and instructions.
5. Computer performance
6. Types of Memory – Primary and Secondary Memory
 OVERVIEW:
Introduction to Binary
Numbers
Binary Number Conversion
1. Decimal to Binary 5. Octal to Binary
2. Octal to Hexadecimal 6. Decimal and
3. Binary to Decimal Hexadecimal
4. Octal and 7. Hexadecimal to Binary
Hexadecimal 8. Decimal to Octal
OVERVIEW:
Addressing modes -
Difference between memory based and register based addressing modes
Simplified Instructional Computer (Sic)
What is Instructions and types of instruction codes
Memory Referencing
Register Referencing
RISC AND CISC in Computer Organization
Essential Registers for Instruction execution
Computer Architecture focuses
on the big-picture design, such as
how the CPU processes instructions,
how data is stored and accessed,
and how the system supports
software. It's like the blueprint of
the computer.
Computer Organization looks at the
details of how hardware components (like the
CPU, memory, and input/output devices) are
connected and work together. It's about how
the blueprint is implemented.

In short, architecture is the plan, and

organization is how the plan is put into
action.
WHAT IS COMPUTER?
A computer is an electronic device that
can process and store information. It can
perform calculations, manipulate data, and
execute instructions to accomplish specific
tasks. It consists of hardware components
such as the central processing unit
(CPU), memory, input/output devices,
and storage devices.
The basic components of a
computer include the:
• central processing unit (CPU),
• memory (RAM),
• storage (hard drive or solid-state drive),
• input devices (keyboard, mouse, etc.),
• output devices (monitor, printer, etc.),
• and various peripheral devices (such as Sound
cards, network cards, etc.)
Central Processing Unit
The CPU is often considered the
brain of the computer, as it
performs most of the processing
and calculations required for a
computer to function.
Memory
also known as RAM, is where
data and instructions are
temporarily stored while the
computer is running.
Storage devices, such as
a hard drive or solid-state
drive, store data and
programs permanently on the
computer.
Input devices allow users to input
data or commands into the
computer, while
Output devices display the results
of the computer’s processing.
Input/output devices, such as a
keyboard, mouse, and monitor,
allow users to interact with the
computer and receive information
from it.
Peripheral devices are
additional components that
can be added to a computer
to enhance its functionality.
Computer doesn’t have a brain like
human beings. We, the Users, have to
give them instructions on what to do
when a particular situation arises. We
have to tell them everything from what to
expect for data(what type of data), how
to process it(how to perform calculations)
to where to store the data.
 We humans understand language
that is composed of words which
further is composed of letters. But,
the computers don’t understand
our language nor the words like
“hello, good morning, discipline, etc”.
They only understand binary
language whose vocabulary
contains only two letters or
states or symbols i.e. 0 and 1,
True and False, On and Off..
To maintain the state, transistors are
used.
•Transistors are tiny devices that are used
to store 2 values 1 and 0 or on and off.
•If the transistor is on we say that it has a
value of 1, and if it is off the value is 0.
For example, a memory chip contains
hundreds of millions or even billions of
transistors, each of which can be switched
on or off individually. As a transistor can
store 2 distinct values, we can have
millions of different values stored on a
memory chip consisting entirely of 0’s and
1s.
But how does a transistor get its
value? When a very little amount of
electric current passes through the
transistor it maintains the state of 1
and when there is no electric current
then the transistor has the state of 0.
•Then how it’s all connected to
the computer?
•These 0’s and 1’s form the building
block of a computer. With the
combinations of 0 and 1, we create a
whole new language
For example,
0 can be written as 0,
1 as 1 a as 01100001
2 as 10 A as 01000001
3 as 11 s as 01110011
4 as 100 U as 01010101
5 as 101
• “Hello” as,
01001000 01100101 01101100 01101100 01101111
• “Hello World!” as,
• 01001000 01100101 01101100 01101100
01101111
00100000 01010111 01101111 01110010
01101100 01100100 00100001
And so on…
So now the question arises how can a
• It seems impossible!
• Well, we humans can do everything that we
desire and this code can be remembered
very easily but we don’t have to remember
it. We just have to use our language and
the software (also built by humans)
converts our normal letters into binary
language.
•What is software?
•Software is a set of instructions that
tells the computer what to do, when to
do, and how to do it. Examples are,
the paint that we use in Microsoft,
WhatsApp, and games, all are types of
different software.
Suppose we want to add 2 numbers and
want to know what 2 + 2 is. Then we must
give the computer instructions,
• Step-1: take 2 values.
• Step-2: store that 2 value
• Step-3: add 2 value by using + operator
• Step-4: save the answer
So who converts this code? Instead of who
we can ask what converts the code. And
answer to that question is a software called
interpreter that interprets our language
code into binary code. The interpreter
converts our code into machine language
that can be understood by the computer.
Now the question is how we give our
input.
• We give our input with the use of hardware
for example like scanner, keyboard, and
mouse. When we give input through
hardware, the software interprets it into
machine language and then it is processed
and our output is shown.
Process: If we want to display the
letter ‘A’ on the screen we first will
open the notepad. Then we will press
the Capslock key or shift key to make
the letter capital, after that, we will
press the letter ‘a’. And our screen will
show the letter ‘A’.
Under the hood process: When we pressed
the capslock or shift key the software tells us
that whatever follows this should be printed on
the screen and after we have pressed the letter
a which is a small letter, the software first
converts it into binary like it had converted
the shift or capslock key and then after the
computer understands it prints A on the
screen.
Related concepts of simple
understanding
Some related concepts that can help in
understanding computers include:
• Binary code: Computers communicate and
process information using a binary code, which
is a system of ones and zeroes. Each binary
digit (or bit) represents a simple “on” or “off”
state, and combinations of bits can represent
more complex information.
Related concepts of simple
understanding
• Algorithms:
An algorithm is a set of instructions or
steps that a computer program follows to
solve a problem or complete a task.
Algorithms are used to perform a wide
range of tasks, from sorting data to
searching for patterns.
Programming
languages: Programming
languages are used to write
computer programs. There are many
different programming languages,
each with its own syntax and set of
rules.
Hardware vs. software: Hardware
refers to the physical components of
a computer, such as the CPU,
memory, and storage devices.
Software, on the other hand, refers
to the programs and instructions
that tell the hardware what to do.
Networks: Computers can be
connected together in networks, which
allows them to communicate and share
resources. Networks can be wired or
wireless and can be used for tasks such
as sharing files, accessing the internet,
or playing multiplayer games.
User interfaces: User interfaces are
the means by which humans interact
with computers. They can be graphical
user interface (GUI), such as a desktop
or mobile operating system, or text-
based, such as a command line
interface (CLI) (ex. command prompt).
Other Features of Computer include,
•Operating System: The operating system
manages the computer’s resources, controls
the hardware, and runs application programs.
•Networking: Networking capabilities allow
computers to communicate and share
resources with other computers and devices.
• Software: Software is the set of instructions that
tell the computer what to do, and it can range
from simple applications to complex programs.
• Graphics and Sound: Graphics and sound
capabilities enable the computer to display and
manipulate images and play sounds and videos.
• Connectivity: Connectivity features like USB, Wi-
Fi, Bluetooth, and Ethernet enable the computer
to connect to other devices and the internet.