Chapter one

introduction
 contents
Introduction:
Allowable Stresses;
Engineering Materials;
Safety Factor;
Types of Machine Elements
 Introduction
 The subject Machine Design is the creation of new and better
machines and improving the existing ones.
 A new or better machine is one which is more economical in
the overall cost of production and operation.
 The process of design is a long and time consuming one.
 In designing a machine component, it is necessary to have a
good knowledge of many subjects such as Mathematics,
Engineering Mechanics, Strength of Materials, Theory of
Machines, Workshop Processes and Engineering Drawing.
 Classifications of Machine Design
The machine design may be classified as follows :
1. Adaptive design.
 This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill and can be
attempted by designers of ordinary technical training.
 The designer only makes minor alternation or modification in the
existing designs of the product. Eg bicycle
2. Development design.
 This type of design needs considerable scientific training and design
ability in order to modify the existing designs into a new idea by
adopting a new material or different method of manufacture.
 In this case, though the designer starts from the existing design,
but the final product may differ quite markedly from the original
product.
 Existing design are used for reference
3. New design.
 This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and
creative thinking.
 Components are made from scratch.
 Only those designers who have personal qualities of a
sufficiently high order can take up the work of a new design
 General Considerations in Machine
Design
Following are the general considerations in designing a machine
component :
 Type of load and stresses caused by the load. The load, on a machine
component, may act in several ways due to which the internal stresses
are set up.
 Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine. The motion of the
parts may be :
(a) Rectilinear motion which includes unidirectional and reciprocating
motions.
(b) Curvilinear motion which includes rotary, oscillatory and simple
harmonic.
 ;

 Form and size of the parts.

 Frictional resistance and lubrication
 Convenient and economical features.
 Use of standard parts.
 Safety of operation.
 Workshop facilities.
 Number of machines to be manufactured.
 Cost of construction.
 Assembling
 General Procedure in Machine Design
1. Recognition of need. First of all, make a complete statement of
the problem, indicating the need, aim or purpose for which the
machine is to be designed.
2. Synthesis (Mechanisms). Select the possible mechanism or
group of mechanisms which will give the desired motion.
3. Analysis of forces. Find the forces acting on each member of the
machine and the energy transmitted by each member.
4. Material selection. Select the material best suited for each
member of the machine.
 The best material is one which serve the desired objective at the
minimum cost.
 The following factors should be considered while selecting the
material :
1. Availability of the materials,
2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service,
and
3. The cost of the materials
5. Design of elements (Size and Stresses). Find the size of each
member of the machine by considering the force acting on the
member and the permissible stresses for the material used.
6. Modification. Modify the size of the member to agree with the
past experience and judgment to facilitate manufacture.
 The modification may also be necessary by consideration of
manufacturing to reduce overall cost.
7. Detailed drawing. Draw the detailed drawing of each
component and the assembly of the machine with complete
specification for the manufacturing processes suggested.
8. Production. The component, as per the drawing, is
manufactured in the workshop
Engineering material and their property
 Mechanical Properties of Metals
The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are
associated with the ability of the material to resist mechanical forces
and load. :
1. Strength. It is the ability of a material to resist the externally
applied forces without breaking or yielding.
2. Stiffness. It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under
stress. The modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
3. Elasticity. It is the property of a material to regain its original
shape after deformation when the external forces are removed..
4. Plasticity. It is property of a material which retains the deformation
produced under load permanently.
5. Ductility. It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into
wire with the application of a tensile force. A ductile material must be
both strong and plastic
6. Brittleness. It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is
the property of breaking of a material with little permanent distortion.
7. Malleability. It is a special case of ductility which permits materials
to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets. A malleable material should
be plastic but it is not essential to be so strong.
8. Toughness. It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to
high impact loads like hammer blows.
9. Machinability. It is the property of a material which refers to a
relative case with which a material can be cut
10. Resilience. It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to
resist shock and impact loads.
11. Creep. When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high
temperature for a long period of time, it will undergo a slow and
permanent deformation called creep.
12. Fatigue. When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails
at stresses below the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a
material is known as *fatigue.
13. Hardness. It embraces many different properties such as resistance
to wear, scratching, deformation and machinability etc. It also means
the ability of a metal to cut another metal.
 Allowable stress and safety factor
• the machine parts are subjected to various forces which may be
due to either one or more of the following:
1. Energy transmitted,
2. Weight of machine,
3. Frictional resistances,
4. Inertia of reciprocating parts,
5. Change of temperature, and
6. Lack of balance of moving parts
 Load
• It is defined as any external force acting upon a machine
part. The following four types of the load are :
1. Dead or steady load. A load is said to be a dead or steady load,
when it does not change in magnitude or direction.
2. Live or variable load. A load is said to be a live or variable
load, when it changes continually.
3. Suddenly applied or shock loads. A load is said to be a
suddenly applied or shock load, when it is suddenly applied or
removed.
4. Impact load. A load is said to be an impact load, when it is
applied with some initial velocity.
Note: A machine part resists a dead load more easily than a live
load and a live load more easily than a shock load.
 Stress
 When some external system of forces or loads act on a
body, the internal forces (equal and opposite) are set up at
various sections of the body, which resist the external
forces.
 This internal force per unit area at any section of the body
is known as unit stress or simply a stress.
 It is denoted by a Greek letter sigma (σ).
 Types of stress

1. Direct stress;
I. Normal stress(tensile and compressive)
II. Tangential stress (shear)
2. Indirect stress (bending and torsion)

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 Examples
1.A hydraulic press exerts a total load of 3.5 MN. This load is
carried by two steel rods, supporting the upper head of the press. If
the safe stress is 85 MPa and E = 210 kN/mm2,
find : 1. diameter of the rods, and 2. extension in each rod in a
length of 2.5 m.
 Working Stress
 When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress
lower than the maximum or ultimate stress at which failure of the
material takes place.
 This stress is known as the working stress or design stress. It is
also known as safe or allowable stress.
 Note : By failure it is not meant actual breaking of the material.
Some machine parts are said to fail when they have plastic
deformation set in them, and they no more perform their function
satisfactory
 Factor of Safety
• A very basic equation to calculate FoS is to divide the ultimate
(or maximum) stress by the typical (or working) stress.

• A FoS of 1 means that a structure or component will fail

exactly when it reaches the design load, and cannot support
any additional load.

• Structures or components with FoS < 1 are not viable;

basically, 1 is the minimum.

• With the equation above, an FoS of 2 means that a component

will fail at twice the design load, and so on.
Types of Machine Elements
 Machine Elements

• In mechanical engineering, a machine element is the smallest

mechanical part or part assembly in a machine.
• They usually perform a single function and cannot be replaced
with multiple parts.
• Thus, a machine element may be defined as a part constituent
(such as a fastener) or a distinct part (e.g. clutch) in machines.
• Broadly, machine elements can be divided into two main types.
 General-purpose machine elements
 Special purpose machine elements
 A. General-purpose machine elements

• These elements are the basic building blocks in many types of

machines.
• Parts such as fasteners (screws, nuts and bolts, rivets, etc.),
chains, shafts, keys, bearings and belts are examples of
general-purpose machine elements.
B. Special-purpose machine elements
• These are mechanical elements that find specific use in
machine design.
• Examples of such parts are the turbine in a jet engine, blades
in a fan, pistons, crankshaft, etc.
 Types of Machine Elements

• Both general and special purpose machine elements are

elementary mechanical components that function together to

make a machine work.

 Bearings
 Shafts
 KEY
 Couplings
 Fasteners
 Gears
 Bearings
 are one of the most common machine elements in machine
design.
 Their job is to eliminate the friction between two moving parts..
 The primary purpose of bearings is to prevent direct metal-to-
metal contact of the two parts and enable smooth relative motion
between them.
Some applications of bearings are:
 Sliding doors/windows/drawers
 Engine crankshaft
 Conveyor pulleys and idlers
 Wind turbines
 Motors
 Shafts

• Shafts are long, cylindrical components used for the transfer of

torque and mechanical power between two components.
• A shaft may be solid or hollow, depending on the need.
• Solid ones are more compact, but their hollow counterparts
have a greater load-carrying capacity for the same weight.
 Some applications of shafts are:
• IC engine crankshafts/camshafts
• Vehicle axles
• Clocks and watches
• Motors
• Pumps
 KEY
• In machine design, keys are small mechanical components that
connect shafts to rotating elements.
• In some cases, they may be solely responsible for the transfer
of torque between the two elements.
Some applications of keys are:
• Motors
• Marine propellers
• Gear drives
• Pulleys
• Sprockets
 Couplings
• are mechanical components that connect two rotating in-line
shafts, with the primary purpose of transmitting power in
mechanical design.
• The entire assembly rotates at the same speed. A coupling may
be rigid or flexible, depending on the need.
• They also absorb shocks and vibration, increasing the service
life of the machines in the process.
• A coupling prevents this transfer of heat from the motor to the
paired machine.
• Some couplings work like fuses.
• If the torque exceeds a certain limit, they break and sever the
connection between the driving and driven components to
protect sensitive machinery.
 Fasteners

• fasteners are used to hold together two or more machinery

components.
• The primary purpose of fasteners is to protect these machines
against high pressures, excessive forces and vibration.
• Fasteners are usually made from carbon steel, stainless steel,
or alloy steel.
• Some examples of fasteners are screws, nuts/bolts, split pins,
rivets and circlips.
• The only question to ask is whether the assembly will need to
be disassembled for maintenance or not, as in the choice of
rivets vs bolts and nuts.
 Gears
• Gears are elementary machine elements with toothed wheels to
transfer power and rotation between two shafts.
• The teeth on two gears mesh with each other and transfer power
from the driving shaft to the driven shaft.
• Most gears are cylindrical in shape with teeth along the
circumference.
Some applications of gears are:
• Clocks and watches
• Vehicle gearboxes
• Clocks and watches
• Mixers and blenders
• Washing machines and dryers
 Safe design.

Load < Resistance