Carnegie

CarnegieMellon
Mello

Machine-Level Programming
II: Control
15-213: Introduction to Computer Systems
6th Lecture, Sep. 17, 2015

Instructors:
Randal E. Bryant and David R. O’Hallaron

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 Carnegie Mello

Today
 Control: Condition codes
 Conditional branches

 Loops

 Switch Statements

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Processor State (x86-64,

Partial)
 Information
about currently Registers
executing %rax %r8
program %rbx %r9
 Temporary data %rcx %r10
( %rax, … ) %rdx %r11
 Location of runtime stack %rsi %r12
( %rsp ) %rdi %r13
 Location of current code %rsp %r14
control point %rbp %r15
( %rip, … )
 Status of recent tests %rip Instruction pointer
( CF, ZF, )
SF, OFstack
Current top
CF ZF SF OF Condition
codes
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 3
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Condition Codes (Implicit

Setting)
 Single bit registers
CF Carry Flag (for unsigned) SF Sign Flag (for signed)
ZF Zero Flag OF Overflow Flag (for signed)

 Implicitly set (think of it as side effect) by

arithmetic operations
Example: addq Src,Dest ↔ t = a+b
CF set if carry out from most significant bit (unsigned overflow)
ZF set if t == 0
SF set if t < 0 (as signed)
OF set if two’s-complement (signed) overflow
(a>0 && b>0 && t<0) || (a<0 && b<0 && t>=0)

 Not set by leaq instruction

Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 4
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Condition Codes (Explicit

Setting: Compare)
 Explicit Setting by Compare Instruction
cmpq Src2, Src1
cmpq b,a like computing a-b without setting destination

CF set if carry out from most significant bit (used for unsigned
comparisons)
ZF set if a == b
SF set if (a-b) < 0 (as signed)
OF set if two’s-complement (signed) overflow
(a>0 && b<0 && (a-b)<0) || (a<0 && b>0 && (a-b)>0)

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Condition Codes (Explicit

Setting: Test)
 Explicit Setting by Test instruction
testq Src2, Src1
testq b,a like computing a&b without setting destination

Sets condition codes based on value of Src1 & Src2

Useful to have one of the operands be a mask

ZF set when a&b == 0

SF set when a&b < 0

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Reading Condition Codes

 SetX Instructions
 Set low-order byte of destination to 0 or 1 based on combinations of
condition codes
 Does not alter remaining 7 bytes
SetX Condition Description
sete ZF Equal / Zero
setne ~ZF Not Equal / Not Zero
sets SF Negative
setns ~SF Nonnegative
setg ~(SF^OF)&~ZF Greater (Signed)
Greater or Equal
setge ~(SF^OF)
(Signed)
setl (SF^OF) Less (Signed)
setle (SF^OF)|ZF Less or Equal (Signed)
seta ~CF&~ZF Above (unsigned)
setb CF Below (unsigned)
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 7
 x86-64 Integer Registers
%rax %al %r8 %r8b

%rbx %bl %r9 %r9b

%rcx %cl %r10 %r10b

%rdx %dl %r11 %r11b

%rsi %sil %r12 %r12b

%rdi %dil %r13 %r13b

%rsp %spl %r14 %r14b

%rbp %bpl %r15 %r15b

 Can reference low-order byte

Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 8
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Reading Condition Codes

(Cont.)
 SetX Instructions:
 Set single byte based on combination of condition
codes
 One of addressable byte
registers
 Does not alter remaining bytes
 Typically use movzbl to finish job
 Register Use(s)
32-bit
int
int gtinstructions
gt (long
(long x,x,also set upper
long
long y)
y) 32 bits to 0
{ %rdi Argument x
{
return
return x
x >
> y;
y; %rsi Argument y
}
} %rax Return value

cmpq %rsi, %rdi # Compare x:y

setg %al # Set when >
movzbl %al, %eax # Zero rest of %rax
ret
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 9
 Carnegie Mello

Today
 Control: Condition codes
 Conditional branches

 Loops

 Switch Statements

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Jumping
 jX Instructions
 Jump to different part of code depending on condition codes

jX Condition Description
jmp 1 Unconditional
je ZF Equal / Zero
jne ~ZF Not Equal / Not Zero
js SF Negative
jns ~SF Nonnegative
jg ~(SF^OF)&~ZF Greater (Signed)
jge ~(SF^OF) Greater or Equal (Signed)
jl (SF^OF) Less (Signed)
jle (SF^OF)|ZF Less or Equal (Signed)
ja ~CF&~ZF Above (unsigned)
jb CF Below (unsigned)

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Conditional Branch Example

(Old Style)
Generation


shark> gcc –Og -S –fno-if-conversion control.c

absdiff:
long
long absdiff
absdiff cmpq %rsi, %rdi # x:y
(long
(long x,
x, long
long y)
y) jle .L4
{
{ movq %rdi, %rax
long
long result;
result; subq %rsi, %rax
if
if (x
(x >
> y)
y) ret
result
result == x-y;
x-y; .L4: # x <= y
else
else movq %rsi, %rax
result
result == y-x;
y-x; subq %rdi, %rax
return
return result;
result; ret
}
}
Register Use(s)
%rdi Argument x
%rsi Argument y
%rax Return value
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 12
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Expressing with Goto Code

 C allows goto statement
 Jump to position designated by label

long
long absdiff
absdiff long
long absdiff_j
absdiff_j
(long
(long x,x, long
long y)
y) (long
(long x,
x, long
long y)
y)
{
{ {
{
long
long result;
result; long
long result;
result;
if
if (x
(x >> y)
y) int
int ntest
ntest == x
x <=
<= y;
y;
result
result == x-y;
x-y; if
if (ntest)
(ntest) goto
goto Else;
Else;
else
else result
result == x-y;
x-y;
result
result == y-x;
y-x; goto
goto Done;
Done;
return
return result;
result; Else:
Else:
}
} result
result == y-x;
y-x;
Done:
Done:
return
return result;
result;
}
}

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General Conditional Expression

Translation (Using Branches)
C Code
val = Test ? Then_Expr : Else_Expr;

val
val =
= x>y
x>y ?
? x-y
x-y :
: y-x;
y-x;

Goto Version
ntest
ntest == !Test;
!Test;  Create separate code regions for
if
if (ntest)
(ntest) goto
goto Else;
Else; then & else expressions
val
val == Then_Expr;
Then_Expr;
goto  Execute appropriate one
goto Done;
Done;
Else:
Else:
val
val == Else_Expr;
Else_Expr;
Done:
Done:
.
. .. .
.

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Using Conditional Moves

 Conditional Move
Instructions
 Instruction supports:
if (Test) Dest  Src C Code
 Supported in post-1995 x86 processors val = Test
 GCC tries to use them ? Then_Expr
 But, only when known to be safe : Else_Expr;
 Why?
Goto Version
 Branches are very disruptive to
instruction flow through pipelines result
result = Then_Expr;
= Then_Expr
 Conditional moves do not require control eval = Else_Expr;
eval = Else_Expr;
nt
nt =
= !Test;
!Test;
transfer if
if (nt)
(nt) result
result = = eval;
eval;
return
return result;
result;

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Conditional Move Example

long
long absdiff
absdiff
(long
(long x,x, long
long y)
y)
{
{ Register Use(s)
long
long result;
result; %rdi Argument x
if
if (x
(x >> y)
y)
result
result == x-y;
x-y; %rsi Argument y
else
else %rax Return value
result
result == y-x;
y-x;
return
return result;
result;
}
}
absdiff:
movq %rdi, %rax # x
subq %rsi, %rax # result = x-y
movq %rsi, %rdx
subq %rdi, %rdx # eval = y-x
cmpq %rsi, %rdi # x:y
cmovle %rdx, %rax # if <=, result = eval
ret
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 16
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Bad Cases for Conditional Move

Expensive Computations
val
val =
= Test(x)
Test(x) ?
? Hard1(x)
Hard1(x) :
: Hard2(x);
Hard2(x);
 Both values get computed
 Only makes sense when
computations are very simple
Risky Computations
val
val =
= p
p ?
? *p
*p :
: 0;
0;
 Both values get computed
 May have undesirable effects
Computations with side
effects
val
val =
= x
x >
> 0
0 ?
? x*=7
x*=7 :
: x+=3;
x+=3;
 Both values get computed
 Must be side-effect free
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 17
 Carnegie Mello

Today
 Control: Condition codes
 Conditional branches

 Loops

 Switch Statements

Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 18

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“Do-While” Loop Example

C Code Goto Version
long
long pcount_do
pcount_do long
long pcount_goto
pcount_goto
(unsigned
(unsigned long
long x)
x) {
{ (unsigned
(unsigned long
long x)
x) {{
long
long result
result == 0;
0; long
long result
result =
= 0;
0;
do
do {{ loop:
loop:
result
result +=
+= xx &
& 0x1;
0x1; result
result +=
+= x
x &
& 0x1;
0x1;
x
x >>=
>>= 1;
1; x
x >>=
>>= 1;
1;
}
} while
while (x);
(x); if(x)
if(x) goto
goto loop;
loop;
return
return result;
result; return
return result;
result;
}
} }
}

 Count number of 1’s in argument x

(“popcount”)
 Use conditional branch to either continue

looping or to exit loop

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“Do-While” Loop Compilation

Goto Version
long
long pcount_goto
pcount_goto
(unsigned
(unsigned long
long x)
x) {{ Register Use(s)
long
long result
result =
= 0;
0;
loop: %rdi Argument x
loop:
result
result +=
+= x
x &
& 0x1;
0x1; %rax result
x
x >>=
>>= 1;
1;
if(x)
if(x) goto
goto loop;
loop;
return
return result;
result;
}
}

movl $0, %eax # result = 0

.L2: # loop:
movq %rdi, %rdx
andl $1, %edx # t = x & 0x1
addq %rdx, %rax # result += t
shrq %rdi # x >>= 1
jne .L2 # if (x) goto loop
rep; ret
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 20
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General “Do-While” Translation

C Code Goto Version
do loop:
Body Body
while (Test); if (Test)
goto loop
 Body: {
Statement1;
Statement2;
…
Statementn;
}

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General “While” Translation #1

“Jump-to-middle” translation


 Used with -Og

Goto Version
goto test;
loop:
While version
Body
while (Test) test:
Body if (Test)
goto loop;
done:

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While Loop Example #1

C Code Jump to
long
long pcount_while
pcount_while Middle
long
long pcount_goto_jtm
pcount_goto_jtm
(unsigned
(unsigned long
long x)
x) { (unsigned
(unsigned long
long x)
x) {
{ Version {
long
long result
result = = 0;
0; long
long result
result =
= 0;
0;
while
while (x)
(x) { { goto
goto test;
test;
result
result +=
+= xx &
& 0x1;
0x1; loop:
loop:
x
x >>=
>>= 1;
1; result
result +=
+= x
x &
& 0x1;
0x1;
}
} x
x >>=
>>= 1;
1;
return
return result;
result; test:
test:
}
} if(x)
if(x) goto
goto loop;
loop;
return
return result;
result;
}
}

 Compare to do-while version of function

 Initial goto starts loop at test

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General “While” Translation #2

While version
 “Do-while” conversion
while (Test)  Used with –O1
Body

Goto Version
Do-While Version if (!Test)
if (!Test) goto done;
goto done; loop:
do Body
Body if (Test)
while(Test); goto loop;
done: done:
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 24
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While Loop Example #2

C Code Do-While
long
long pcount_while
pcount_while Version
long
long pcount_goto_dw
pcount_goto_dw
(unsigned
(unsigned long
long x)
x) {
{ (unsigned
(unsigned long
long x)
x) {{
long
long result
result = = 0;
0; long
long result
result == 0;
0;
while
while (x)
(x) { { if
if (!x)
(!x) goto
goto done;
done;
result
result +=
+= xx &
& 0x1;
0x1; loop:
loop:
x
x >>=
>>= 1;
1; result
result +=
+= xx &
& 0x1;
0x1;
}
} x
x >>=
>>= 1;
1;
return
return result;
result; if(x)
if(x) goto
goto loop;
loop;
}
} done:
done:
return
return result;
result;
}
}

 Compare to do-while version of function

 Initial conditional guards entrance to loop

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“For” Loop Form Init

General Form i
i =
= 0
0
for (Init; Test; Update ) Test
Body i
i <
< WSIZE
WSIZE

#define
#define WSIZE WSIZE 8*sizeof(int)
8*sizeof(int) Update
long
long pcount_for
pcount_for i++
i++
(unsigned
(unsigned long long x) x)
{
{
size_t
size_t i; i; Body
long
long result result = = 0; 0; {
{
for
for (i (i = = 0; 0; i i < < WSIZE;
WSIZE; i++) i++) unsigned
unsigned bit
bit =
=
{
{ (x
(x >>
>> i)
i) && 0x1;
0x1;
unsigned
unsigned bit bit = = result
result +=
+= bit;
bit;
(x
(x >> >> i) i) & & 0x1;
0x1; }
}
result
result += += bit; bit;
}
}
return
return result; result;
}
}
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“For” Loop  While Loop

For Version
for (Init; Test; Update )
Body

While Version
Init;
while (Test ) {
Body
Update;
}
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For-While Conversion
long
long pcount_for_while
pcount_for_while
Init (unsigned
(unsigned long
long x)
x)
{
{
i
i =
= 0
0 size_t
size_t i;i;
long
long result
result = = 0;
0;
Test i
i == 0;
0;
i
i <
< WSIZE
WSIZE while
while (i(i <
< WSIZE)
WSIZE)
{
{
Update unsigned
unsigned bit
bit ==
(x
(x >>
>> i)
i) &
& 0x1;
0x1;
i++
i++ result
result +=+= bit;
bit;
i++;
i++;
Body }
}
{
{ return
return result;
result;
unsigned
unsigned bit
bit == }
}
(x
(x >>
>> i)
i) &
& 0x1;
0x1;
result
result +=
+= bit;
bit;
}
}

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“For” Loop Do-While

Conversion
Goto Version
C Code long
long pcount_for_goto_dw
pcount_for_goto_dw
(unsigned
(unsigned long
long x)
x) {
{
long
long pcount_for
pcount_for size_t
size_t i;i;
(unsigned
(unsigned long
long x)
x) long
long result
result = = 0;
0;
{
{ i
i == 0;
0; Init
size_t
size_t i;
i; if
if (!(i
(!(i << WSIZE))
WSIZE))
long
long result
result == 0;
0; goto
goto done;
done; !Test
for
for (i
(i =
= 0;
0; i
i << WSIZE;
WSIZE; i++)
i++) loop:
loop:
{
{ {
{
unsigned
unsigned bit
bit == unsigned
unsigned bit
bit ==
(x
(x >>
>> i)
i) && 0x1; (x Body
0x1; (x >>
>> i)
i) &
& 0x1;
0x1;
result
result +=
+= bit;
bit; result
result +=+= bit;
bit;
}
} }
}
return
return result;
result; i++; Update
i++;
}
} if
if (i
(i << WSIZE)
WSIZE) Test
goto
goto loop;
loop;
 Initial test can be done:
done:
optimized away return
return result;
result;
}
}
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Today

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long
long switch_eg
switch_eg
Switch
{{
(long
(long x,x, long
long y,
y, long
long z)
z) Statement
long
long ww == 1;
switch(x)
switch(x) {{
1; Example
case
case 1:
1:
ww == y*z;
y*z;
 Multiple case labels
break;
break;  Here: 5 & 6
case
case 2:
2:
ww == y/z;
y/z;
 Fall through cases
/*
/* Fall
Fall Through
Through */
*/  Here: 2
case
case 3:
3:
ww +=
+= z;
z;
 Missing cases
break;
break;  Here: 4
case
case 5:
5:
case
case 6:
6:
ww -=
-= z;
z;
break;
break;
default:
default:
ww == 2;
2;
}}
return
return w;w;
}}
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Jump Table Structure

Switch Form Jump Table Jump Targets
switch(x)
switch(x) {{ jtab: Targ0
Targ0: Code Block
case
case val_0:
val_0: 0
Block Targ1
Block 00
case
case val_1:
val_1: Targ2 Targ1: Code Block
Block
Block 11 •
•• •• •• 1
•
case
case val_n-1:
val_n-1: •
Block
Block n–1
n–1 Targ2: Code Block
}} Targn-1
2

•
Translation (Extended C) •
goto
goto *JTab[x];
*JTab[x]; •

Targn-1: Code Block

n–1
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Switch Statement Example

long
long switch_eg(long
switch_eg(long x,
x, long
long y,
y, long
long z)
z)
{{
long
long ww == 1; 1;
switch(x)
switch(x) {{
.. .. ..
}}
return
return w; w;
}}

Setup:
Register Use(s)
switch_eg:
movq %rdx, %rcx %rdi Argument x
cmpq $6, %rdi # x:6 %rsi Argument y
ja .L8
%rdx Argument z
jmp *.L4(,%rdi,8)
%rax Return value
What range of Note that w not
values takes
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition
initialized here 33
 Carnegie Mello

Switch Statement Example

long
long switch_eg(long
switch_eg(long x,
x, long
long y,
y, long
long z)
z)
{{
long
long ww == 1; 1;
switch(x)
switch(x) {{ Jump table
.. .. ..
.section
.section .rodata
.rodata
}} .align
.align 88
return
return w; w; .L4:
.L4:
}} .quad
.quad .L8
.L8 ## xx == 00
.quad
.quad .L3
.L3 ## xx == 11
.quad .L5 ## xx == 22
Setup: .quad
.quad
.L5
.L9 ## xx == 33
.quad .L9
.quad
.quad .L8
.L8 ## xx == 44
switch_eg: .quad .L7 ## xx == 55
.quad .L7
movq %rdx, %rcx .quad
.quad .L7
.L7 ## xx == 66
cmpq $6, %rdi # x:6
ja .L8 # Use default
Indirect jmp *.L4(,%rdi,8) # goto *JTab[x]
jump

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Assembly Setup Explanation

 Table Structure Jump table
 Each target requires 8 bytes
.section .rodata
 Base address at .L4 .section
.align
.align 88
.rodata

.L4:
.L4:
.quad
.quad .L8
.L8 ## xx == 00
.quad
.quad .L3
.L3 ## xx == 11
 Jumping .quad
.quad .L5
.L5 ## xx == 22
.quad .L9 ## xx == 33
 Direct: jmp .L8 .quad
.quad
.quad
.L9
.L8
.L8 ## xx == 44
 Jump target is denoted by label .L8 .quad
.quad
.quad
.L7
.L7
.L7
## xx == 55
## xx == 66
.quad .L7

 Indirect: jmp *.L4(,%rdi,8)

 Start of jump table: .L4
 Must scale by factor of 8 (addresses are 8 bytes)
 Fetch target from effective Address .L4 + x*8
 Only for 0 ≤ x ≤ 6

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 Carnegie Mello

Jump Table
Jump table
switch(x)
switch(x) {{
.section
.section .rodata
.rodata
case
case 1:
1: //
// .L3
.L3
.align
.align 88 ww == y*z;
y*z;
.L4:
.L4: break;
.quad .L8 ## xx == 00
break;
.quad .L8 case
.quad
.quad .L3
.L3 ## xx == 11 case 2:
2: //
// .L5
.L5
.quad
.quad .L5
.L5 ## xx == 22 ww == y/z;
y/z;
.quad
.quad .L9
.L9 ## xx == 33 /*
/* Fall
Fall Through
Through */
*/
.quad
.quad .L8
.L8 ## xx == 44
case
case 3:
3: //
// .L9
.L9
.quad
.quad .L7
.L7 ## xx == 55
.quad
.quad .L7
.L7 ## xx == 66 ww +=
+= z;
z;
break;
break;
case
case 5:
5:
case
case 6:
6: //
// .L7
.L7
ww -=
-= z;
z;
break;
break;
default:
default: //
// .L8
.L8
ww == 2;
2;
}}

Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 36

 Carnegie Mello

Code Blocks (x == 1)
switch(x)
switch(x) {{ .L3:
.L3:
case
case 1: 1: //
// .L3
.L3 movq
movq %rsi,
%rsi, %rax
%rax ## yy
ww == y*z;
y*z; imulq
imulq %rdx,
%rdx, %rax
%rax ## y*z
y*z
break;
break; ret
ret
.. .. ..
}}

Register Use(s)
%rdi Argument x
%rsi Argument y
%rdx Argument z
%rax Return value

Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 37

 Carnegie Mello

Handling Fall-Through
long
long ww == 1;
1;
.. .. ..
switch(x)
switch(x) {{ case
case 2:
2:
.. .. .. ww == y/z;
y/z;
case
case 2:
2: goto
goto merge;
merge;
ww == y/z;
y/z;
/*
/* Fall
Fall Through
Through */
*/
case
case 3:
3:
ww +=
+= z;
z;
break;
break;
.. .. ..
case
case 3:
3:
}}
ww == 1;
1;
merge:
merge:
ww +=
+= z;
z;

Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 38

 Carnegie Mello

Code Blocks (x == 2, x == 3)
.L5:
.L5: ## Case
Case 22
long
long ww == 1;
1; movq
movq %rsi,
%rsi, %rax
%rax
.. .. .. cqto
cqto
switch(x)
switch(x) {{ idivq
idivq %rcx
%rcx ## y/z
y/z
.. .. .. jmp
jmp .L6
.L6 ## goto
goto merge
merge
case 2:
case 2: .L9:
.L9: ## Case
Case 33
ww == y/z;
y/z; movl
movl $1,
$1, %eax
%eax ## ww == 11
/* Fall Through */
/* Fall Through */ .L6:
.L6: ## merge:
merge:
case
case 3:
3: addq
addq %rcx,
%rcx, %rax
%rax ## ww +=
+= zz
ww += z;
+= z; ret
ret
break;
break;
.. .. ..
}} Register Use(s)
%rdi Argument x
%rsi Argument y
%rdx Argument z
%rax Return value

Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 39

 Carnegie Mello

Code Blocks (x == 5, x == 6,
default)
switch(x)
switch(x) {{ .L7:
.L7: ## Case
Case 5,65,6
.. .. .. movl
movl $1,
$1, %eax
%eax ## ww == 11
case
case 5: 5: //
// .L7
.L7 subq
subq %rdx,
%rdx, %rax
%rax ## ww -=
-= zz
case
case 6: 6: //
// .L7
.L7 ret
ret
ww -=
-= z;
z; .L8:
.L8: ## Default:
Default:
break;
break; movl
movl $2,
$2, %eax
%eax ## 22
default:
default: // // .L8
.L8 ret
ret
ww == 2;
2;
}}

Register Use(s)
%rdi Argument x
%rsi Argument y
%rdx Argument z
%rax Return value

Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 40

 Carnegie Mellon

Summarizing
 C Control
 if-then-else
 do-while
 while, for
 switch
 Assembler Control
 Conditional jump
 Conditional move
 Indirect jump (via jump tables)
 Compiler generates code sequence to implement more complex control
 Standard Techniques
 Loops converted to do-while or jump-to-middle form
 Large switch statements use jump tables
 Sparse switch statements may use decision trees (if-elseif-elseif-else)
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 41
 Carnegie Mello

Summary
 Today
 Control: Condition codes
 Conditional branches & conditional moves
 Loops
 Switch statements
 Next Time
 Stack
 Call / return
 Procedure call discipline

Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 42