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MEEN 208: BASIC ENGINEERING

THERMODYNAMICS

MODULE 2

2021/2022 Session
2nd semester

Prof. S. M. Waziri, Prof. M. S. Olakunle, Engr. A. D. Datti, Engr. J. Haruna, & Engr. U.
Ahmed
2

Fundamental
Concepts
 Learning Outcomes
3

At the end of this section, students are expected to be able

to:
 Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such as

system, state, state postulate, equilibrium, process, and

cycle.

 Discuss properties of a system and differentiate between

intensive and extensive properties.

 Understand concepts of temperature, temperature scales,

 System
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A system is defined as “any Boundary can be real or
object, any quantity of matter, or imaginary AND moving or fixed
any region selected for study”; it
is separated from its
‘surroundings’ by a ‘boundary’.
 Control Mass/Volume System(s)
5 Open System
Closed System (Control Volume)
(Control Mass) • A properly selected region in
• System of fixed mass space
• No mass transfer • Presence of mass
across system boundary transfer across system
Examples: A closed pepsi can, an air filled car tire, a boundary
Examples: A water heater, a car radiator, a turbine, and
batch reactor. a compressor

NOTE: Most engineering systems

 Classification of Systems
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Homogenous
vs
Inhomogeneous

Simple
vs
Composite
 Example 2.1
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Classify the systems in the

following Figure.

The system is indicated by the

dashed line. (a) Closed tank that
contains some liquid and some
gas.
(b) The liquid portion in a closed,
thermally insulated tank that also
contains some gas.
(c) Thermally insulated
 Example 2.1 (Solution)
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In (a) we have a tank that contains a liquid and a vapor. This system is inhomogeneous, because it
consists of two phases; closed, because it cannot exchange mass with the surroundings; and simple,
because it does not contain any internal walls. Although the liquid can exchange mass with the vapor, the
exchange is internal to the system. There is no mention of insulation. We may assume, therefore, that the
system is diathermal.

In (b) we have the same setup but the system is now defined to be just the liquid portion of the contents.
This system is simple, open, and diathermal. Simple, because there are no internal walls; open, because
the liquid can exchange mass with the vapor by evaporation or condensation; and diathermal, because it
can exchange heat with the vapor. In this case, the insulation around the tank is not sufficient to render the
system adiabatic because of the open interface between the liquid and vapor.

In (c) we have a condenser similar to those found in chemistry labs. Usually, hot vapor flows through the
center of the condenser while cold water flows on the outside, causing the vapor to condense. This system
is open because it allows mass flow through its boundaries. It is composite because of the wall that
separates the two fluids. It is adiabatic because it is insulated from the surroundings. Even though heat is
transferred between the inner and outer tube, this transfer is internal to the system (it does not cross the
system bounds) and does not make the system diathermal.
 Properties
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 Any characteristic of a system is called a property
 Examples include pressure, temperature, volume, mass, viscosity, thermal
conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric
resistivity, velocity, elevation, etc.
 They are also called state functions.
 Their values are independent of the history of the system.
 Properties are classified into two:
 Intensive

 Extensive
 Properties
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 Intensive Properties:
These are properties that are independent
of the mass of a system, such as
temperature, pressure, density, etc.
 Extensive Properties:
These are properties whose values depend
on the size or extent of the system, such
as mass, energy, volume, etc.
 Extensive properties per unit mass are called
specific properties. Some examples of
specific properties are specific volume (v =
V/m) and specific total energy (e = E/m)
 Properties
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 They can also be classified as:
 Measurables

 Conceptuals

Measurables: These are properties whose values can be

determined directly from an experiment (e.g. temperature, pressure,
volume)

Conceptuals: These are properties whose values cannot be

obtained directly from experiment; their values must be obtained by
some mathematical procedure applied to measurables (e.g. internal
energy, enthalpy, entropy)
 State
 State is the condition of a system as
defined by the values of all its
properties.
 Any operation in which one or more
properties of a system change is
called a change of state.
 State Postulate: The state of a
simple compressible system is
completely specified by two
independent, intensive properties.
 A system is called a simple
 Equilibrium
 The word equilibrium implies a state of balance.
 A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from its
surroundings.
 Equilibrium generally requires all properties to be uniform throughout the
system.
 Types of Equilibrium
 Mechanical Equilibrium: If the pressure is
the same throughout the entire system
 Thermal Equilibrium: If the temperature is the
same throughout the entire system.
 Phase Equilibrium: When the mass of each
phase reaches an equilibrium level and stays there.
 Chemical Equilibrium: If its chemical composition
 Process
 Any change that a system undergoes from
one equilibrium state to another is called a
process.

 The series of states through which a system

passes during a process is called the path of
the process.

 Types of Processes
 Isothermal Process: constant temperature
 Isobaric Process: constant pressure
 Isochoric (Isometric) Process: constant
specific volume
 Adiabatic Process: no heat transfer
 Quasi-equilibrium process
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 When a process proceeds such that the system remains infinitesimally close to an
equilibrium state at all times, it is termed a quasi-static or quasi-equilibrium
process or reversible process.
 An example of a quasi-equilibrium process is a very slow compression of gas in a
piston-cylinder device.

 A quasi-equilibrium process is an idealized process and is not a true representation

of an actual process.
 Engineers are interested in quasi-equilibrium processes for two reasons.
 They are easy to analyze.
 Work-producing devices deliver the most work when they operate on quasi-
 Cyclic Process
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If at the end of a process,

a system returns to its
initial state, then it is said
to have undergone a
cycle, i.e. the initial and
final states are identical.

Cyclic Process
 Zeroth Law
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 The property of a system which determines the degree of
hotness or coldness is known as temperature.
 When two systems are at the same temperature they are in
thermal equilibrium (they will not exchange heat). A C
 Zeroth Law: If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a TA= TC
third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each A B
other.
TA= TB
 The zeroth law implies that if we want to know if two bodies B C
are at the same temperature, it is not necessary to bring
them into contact and see whether their observable
properties change with time, it is necessary only to see if TB= TC
they are individually in thermal equilibrium with a third body.

 The third body is usually a thermometer.

 Thermometers
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 Thermometers are devices that are used to measure the temperature of
a system.
 Any body with at least one measurable property that changes as its
temperature changes can be used as a thermometer. Such a property is
called a thermometric property.
 Examples of thermometric properties
 the volume of a liquid

 the dimensions of a solid

 the pressure of a gas at constant volume

 the volume of a gas at constant pressure
 the electric resistance of a conductor
 the color of an object
 Temperature Scales and the Absolute Zero
Temperature
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Temperat Uni Relations

ure Scale t
Celsius o
C T(oC) = {T (oF) –
32}/1.8
Fahrenheit o
F T(oF) = 1.8T (oC) +
32
Kelvin K T(K) = T(oC) +
273.15
T(R) = 1.8T(K)
Rankine
Ice point : 0RoC (32T(R)
o
F) = T( F) +
o

459.67
 Steam point: 100oC (212oF)

 ∆ T(oC) = ∆ T(K), ∆ T(oF) = ∆T(R),

∆T(R) = 1.8 ∆T(K)
 Temperature Scales and the Absolute Zero
Temperature
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The lowest temperature on the Kelvin scale is

 Pressure
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 Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a
fluid per unit area.
 The counterpart of pressure in solids is normal
stress.
 The unit of pressure is Newtons per square meter
(N/m2), which is called a pascal (Pa). The Pascal
unit is too small for pressures encountered in
practice, therefore its multiples tend to be used.
NOTE:
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
1 atm = 101,325 Pa =101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars
1 kgf/cm2 = 9.807 N/cm2 = 9.807 x 104 N/m2 =
9.807 x 104 Pa = 0.9807 bar = 0.9679 atm
 Types of Pressures
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 Absolute Pressure
 Gauge Pressure
 Vacuum Pressure
 The absolute pressure is the
actual pressure at a given
position, which is measured
relative to absolute vacuum (i.e.
 absolute zero pressure).
Most pressure measuring devices
are calibrated to read zero at
atmospheric pressure.
𝑷 > 𝑷 𝒂𝒕𝒎 : 𝑷 𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒈𝒆 =𝑷 𝒂𝒃𝒔 − 𝑷 𝒂𝒕𝒎
NOTE: The local value of the atmospheric
𝑷 ¿ 𝑷 𝒂𝒕𝒎 : 𝑷 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎= 𝑷 𝒂 𝒕𝒎 − 𝑷 𝒂 𝒃𝒔 pressure is used when determining the
 Variation of Pressure with Depth
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 Pressure in a fluid increases with depth,
because of the effect of the ‘extra weight’

 If the surface of the fluid is exposed to the

atmosphere, then the pressure P of the
fluid at a distance (depth) h below the
surface is given as
𝑷 =𝑷 𝒂𝒕𝒎 +𝝆 𝒈𝒉 𝑷 𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒈𝒆=𝝆 𝒈𝒉

 Liquids are considered incompressible

substances, thus variation of density with
depth is negligible. 𝟐
𝒅𝑷
 For fluids =− 𝝆 𝒈
whose density ∆ 𝑷= 𝑷 𝟐 −
changes 𝑷 𝟏 =−∫ 𝝆 𝒈𝒅𝒛
significantly𝒅𝒛
with elevation 𝟏
 Pressure in a Fluid at Rest
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 Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape or cross section of the
container.
 The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid.
 The pressure force exerted by the fluid is always normal to the surface at the
specified points.
 Pascal’s Law
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The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same amount.
Application of Pascal’s Law:
Lifting of a large weight by a
small force
 Pressure Measuring
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Device Function Comments
Baromete For Measurement of atmospheric • Invented by Torricelli (1608–1647)
r pressure. • 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 1 atm at sea
level
Manomet For Measurement of pressures below • Inclined manometers are used for
er atmospheric and slightly above increasing resolution when reading fluid
atmospheric, and pressure differences height.
(for example, across an orifice in a • Heavy fluids such as mercury are used if
pipe) large pressure differences are
anticipated
Bourdon Consists of a bent, coiled, or twisted • Invented by Bourdon (1808–1884)
gauge hollow • When the tube is open to the
metal tube whose end is closed and atmosphere, the tube is undeflected
connected to a dial indicator needle. (calibrated to read zero).
Pressure Uses various techniques to convert the • Pressure transducers are smaller and
Transduc pressure effect to an electrical effect faster, and they can be more sensitive,
er such as a change in voltage, resistance, reliable, and precise than their
or capacitance. mechanical counterparts.
 Pressure Measurement Devices
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Barometer Manometer

𝑷 𝒂𝒕𝒎=𝝆 𝒈𝒉 𝑷 𝟐=𝑷 𝒂𝒕𝒎 + 𝝆 𝒈𝒉

 Pressure Measurement Devices
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Dead weight
Bourdon tubes
tester

Pressure
transducer
 Pressure Calculations Principles
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(1) The pressure change across a fluid column of height h is ΔP = ρgh
(2) Pressure increases downward in a given fluid and decreases upward (i.e., Pbottom >
Ptop).
(3) Two points at the same elevation in a continuous fluid at rest are at the same pressure.