Chapter 12

Biological basis
for personality
Introduction
• Biological Theories of Personality:
• Personality is influenced by biological
factors like brain function, genetics, and
physiological arousal.
• Personality traits can be traced to
biological processes within the brain and
body.
• Changes in Personality:
• Occur naturally over time (developmental
changes).
• Can also result from injury, disease (e.g.,
dementia), or substance use (e.g.,
alcohol).
Case Study - Jacob
Jacob, 55 years old, worked as a driver for 30 years. He is Happily
married to Joy with 3 adult children. Previously known as
hardworking, loving, and well-respected.

Personality Changes:
Increased aggression at work (towards a colleague).
Mood swings, loss of concentration, overeating, and significant weight gain.
Cold and emotionally distant at home, making hurtful comments (e.g., calling his
wife "fat").
Inability to empathize with grieving family members after a relative's death.

Medical Diagnosis: Brain scan revealed Pick’s disease, a type of dementia

affecting the frontotemporal lobe. Disease caused brain cells to atrophy due to a
build-up of proteins, affecting behavior and emotional control.
Historical Theories of Personality – Cesare
Lombroso
Lombroso’s Theory (1870s):
• Argued that certain criminals were
biologically predisposed to criminal
behavior.
• Linked primitive traits to a "reversion" to
earlier stages of human evolution.
• Physical Stigmata: Unusual physical
features like asymmetrical facial bones,
large skulls, and other anomalies were
believed to indicate criminal tendencies.
• Critique:
• Lombroso's theories are considered
scientifically flawed and have been widely
discredited.
• They contributed to stereotyping and
discrimination based on physical appearance.
Historical Theories of Personality – Ernst
Kretschmer
• Kretschmer’s Theory (1920s): Suggested that body
types were linked to specific personality traits and mental
disorders.
• Three Main Body Types:
• Asthenic (Thin, Tall): Associated with schizophrenia.
• Athletic (Muscular): Linked to general well-being but not
strongly linked to mental disorders.
• Pyknic (Stocky, Round): Thought to
be more prone to manic-depressive disorder
(bipolar disorder).
Critique:
• This theory was eventually debunked.
Eysenck’s Biological Theory – The PEN
Model
• Eysenck developed the PEN Model, which identifies three core
personality traits: Psychoticism, Extraversion, and Neuroticism.
• PEN Model Explanation:
• Psychoticism: Linked to impulsivity and aggressiveness.
• Extraversion: Associated with sociability and activity levels.
• Neuroticism: Related to emotional instability and anxiety.
• Eysenck’s Hypothesis: These traits are influenced by genetic factors
and physiological arousal levels.
 Eysenck’s Biological Theory –
Cortical Arousal
Cortical Arousal Theory (Eysenck, 1967):
Personality traits are associated with cortical
arousal through the Ascending Reticular
Activating System (ARAS) in the brain.
Extraversion: Linked to low cortical arousal, causing
extroverts to seek stimulation to feel energized.
Introversion: Linked to high cortical arousal, making
introverts more sensitive to stimuli, so they seek less
external stimulation.
• The Arousal Curve:
• Follows a U-shaped curve, where moderate arousal leads
to optimal performance.
• Too little or too much arousal can negatively affect
behavior and performance.
Eysenck’s Biological Theory –
Visceral Brain & Neuroticism
• Visceral Brain (Limbic System):
Responsible for emotional responses like the
fight-or-flight reaction.
• People with high neuroticism experience
higher levels of activation in the visceral
brain and have lower thresholds for
emotional arousal.
Effects of High Neuroticism:
• Neurotic individuals are more likely to experience
stress reactions like rapid heart rate, sweating,
and difficulty breathing in response to even small
stressors.
• Non-neurotic individuals show lower sensitivity
and slower emotional arousal.
Eysenck’s and Gray’s Models
Male Hormones and Psychoticism:
• High levels of testosterone and low levels of
the enzyme monoamine oxidase are
associated with psychoticism
and sensation-seeking behaviours.
• Gray’s (1981) Revision of the PEN Model:
• Emphasized the role of impulsivity and anxiety.
• Proposed two systems: the Behavioural Activation System (BAS)
and the Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS).
• BAS: Linked to impulsivity and the pursuit of rewards.
• BIS: Associated with anxiety and sensitivity to punishment.
Eysenck’s and Gray’s Models (Cont.)
• BIS and BAS in Behaviour:
• BAS individuals are more impulsive and tend to seek new
experiences and take risks.
• Research Example: BAS is associated with recreational
drug use; impulsive people are more likely to experiment
with substances (Franken & Muris, 2006).
• Criticism and Support:
• While Eysenck’s and Gray’s models are supported
by some experimental findings, they do not account
for all observed personality traits and behaviours
(Matthews & Gilliland, 1999).
Historical Overview of Brain and
Behavior
Phineas Gage Case Study (1848):
Phineas Gage, a railway worker, survived a
severe brain injury when a metal rod shot
through his skull, damaging the left frontal lobe.
• Personality Changes: Gage was reported to
have changed from a calm, hardworking man
to someone impulsive and unreliable.
• Sparked research into the role of the frontal
lobes in personality and behavior regulation.
Some claims of his extreme personality
changes were likely exaggerated (Macmillan,
2002).
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) and
Personality Changes
Fowler & McCabe (2011) found that 66% of TBI
survivors experience notable personality changes.
• Key Symptoms:
• Difficulty regulating emotions.
• Outbursts of anger or apathy.
• Poor decision-making, lack of judgment.
• Reduced empathy and little insight into their behavioral
changes.
• Clinical Observations: TBI can have profound effects
on social relationships and overall functioning.
Brain Imaging and Personality
Studies:
• High neuroticism scores correlated with
increased activation in the medial
prefrontal cortex (involved in self-
appraisal) when viewing sad faces (Haas et
al., 2008).
• Neuroticism linked to activity in the anterior
cingulate cortex and amygdala,
especially during tasks involving emotional
conflict (Haas et al., 2007).
• Higher extraversion scores were associated
with increased amygdala activation when
participants viewed happy faces (Canli et al.,
2002).
These studies demonstrate that stable
personality traits are associated with specific
patterns of brain activity.
 Investigating Brain-Behavior
Relationships
• Electroencephalography (EEG):
• Measures brain’s electrical activity through electrodes on the scalp.
• Provides excellent temporal resolution, useful for analyzing rapid changes in brain activity.
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI):
• Structural MRI: Creates detailed images of the brain's anatomy, used to detect structural
abnormalities.
• Functional MRI (fMRI): Measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET):
• Measures metabolic processes, giving insights into brain function and activity in real-time.
• Molecular Genetics:
• Analyzes the relationship between specific genes and traits,
helping to link genetic markers with personality.
• Molecular Assays: Quantifies levels of
neurotransmitters and hormones, correlating them
with mood and personality traits.
• Pharmacological Manipulation:
• Uses drugs to alter neurotransmitter levels to observe
their effects on behavior and personality traits.
Developmental Perspective on
Personality
Personality Stability and Change Across the Lifespan:
Early Biological Influence:
• A child’s personality is influenced largely by their
genetic makeup and biological factors before
environmental influences begin.
• This offers a unique opportunity to study
personality traits in their purest form,
unaffected by social conditioning.
Development Over Time:
• Personality traits may evolve as biological
and social factors interact throughout life.
• Biological aging can influence personality, such as the decline
in emotional reactivity or openness in later years.
Temperament and Early Personality
Development
• Defining Temperament:
• Observational Basis: Parents and caregivers often
notice temperament traits early in a child’s life.
• Examples: Some infants are more active and easily
soothed, while others may be more irritable or
difficult to calm.
• Sibling Differences: Temperament differences are
often striking even between siblings raised in the
same environment, suggesting a biological
underpinning.
• Temperament Dimensions:
Activity level.
Emotionality (reactions to stimuli).
Attention span and distractibility.
The Biological Basis of Temperament
• Biological Disposition:
• Includes innate tendencies in emotion, attention, and activity levels.
• Determines how infants engage with their environment—whether
they approach or withdraw from stimuli.
• Emotional Regulation:
• Varies greatly between infants. Some regulate emotions easily, while
others may have large emotional responses to minor stimuli.
• These early temperamental traits shape interactions with caregivers
and others, which in turn influence future personality development.
• Genetic Influence:
• Saudino & Wang (2012): Most dimensions of temperament are
genetically heritable.
• Temperament traits are passed down from parents, supporting the
role of nature in early personality development.
Lifespan Changes in Personality
• Human Development: Personality evolves throughout life due to
biological changes and environmental influences.
• Types of Changes:
• Biologically Inevitable Changes: Growth and development occur in
everyone (e.g., aging, brain development).
• Environmental-Dependent Changes:
Factors like stress, lifestyle, and health contribute
to individual differences in personality changes.
• Personality Stability:
Although personality is considered
relatively stable, research shows
significant shifts over time influenced
by biological and environmental factors.
Biological Influences on Personality
• Brain Development and Executive Functions:
• The frontal and parietal lobes, key areas for executive
functions (e.g., decision-making, self-regulation, empathy),
continue developing into early adulthood.
• Key Executive Functions:
• Inhibiting behaviours: Self-control and restraint.
• Sensation-seeking: Desire for novel experiences.
• Problem-solving: Handling complex tasks and social situations.
• These brain regions are immature at birth and progressively
mature, contributing to personality development through
childhood and adolescence.
Adolescent Brain Development
• Longitudinal Study by Giedd et al. (1999):
• The study tracked brain changes from pre-adolescence to post-
adolescence, focusing on the frontal and temporal lobes.
• Key Findings:
• Brain regions responsible for impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and
emotional regulation are not fully developed in adolescents.
• These findings suggest that risky behaviours often observed during
adolescence are likely due to ongoing brain maturation rather than inherent
personality traits.
• Adolescent Hormonal Changes:
• Hormonal fluctuations during adolescence (e.g., increased
testosterone) are linked to increased social motivation and risk-
taking behaviours (Forbes & Dahl, 2010).
The Big Five Personality Traits and
Aging
Study by Lucas & Donnellan (2011):
Over 20,000 participants were assessed for changes in
the Big Five personality traits (Openness to Experience,
Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and
Neuroticism) across different age groups.

• Extraversion and Openness

show a decline with age
• Agreeableness
increases with age
 Alcohol, Drugs, and Personality: A Two-Way
Relationship
• The Impact of Substance Use on Personality:
• Certain personality traits are linked to substance use (e.g.,
alcohol, drugs).
• Substance use, in turn, can change personality over time,
especially with chronic use.
• Personality Traits Associated with Substance Use:
• High extraversion and low conscientiousness are correlated with
higher likelihood of alcohol abuse (Flory et al., 2002).
• Impulsivity and sensation-seeking traits are linked to the use of illegal
drugs, particularly during adolescence (Quinn & Harden, 2013).
Alcohol and Personality: Short- and
Long-Term Effects
• Short-Term Personality Changes:
• Binge drinking impairs executive functions, leading to
increased impulsivity and aggression (Giancola, 2000).
• Short-term alcohol consumption is associated with antisocial
behaviours, such as unsafe sexual practices and experimenting
with illegal drugs (Seggie, 2012).
• Long-Term Personality Changes:
• Chronic alcohol use can result in permanent changes to brain
structure, especially in the prefrontal cortex responsible for
executive functioning (White & Swartzwelder, 2004).
• Alcoholism is linked to age-related personality changes, such
as the decline in alcoholism rates as individuals mature, known
as the maturing-out phenomenon (Littlefield, Sher, & Wood,
2009).
Impact of Alcohol on Brain
Development
Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): Heavy alcohol
consumption by expectant mothers can lead to
severe cognitive and social impairments in
the child (Roebuck, Mattson, & Riley, 1999).
• These individuals may face lifelong challenges in
areas such as learning, emotional regulation,
and social behaviours due to the impact of
alcohol on brain development in utero.
• Adolescent Alcohol Use:
• Excessive alcohol consumption during
adolescence can impair brain development,
leading to permanent changes in executive
functions, such as decision-making and memory
(White & Swartzwelder, 2004).
Drug Use and Personality
• Drugs and Personality: Research indicates that personality traits like
low extraversion and high openness are associated with increased
likelihood of drug use (Flory et al., 2002).
• Long-Term Drug Use Effects:
• Cannabis use has been linked to significant
declines in IQ over time, even after
discontinuing the drug (Meier et al., 2012).
• Methamphetamine use impairs cognitive
functions such as memory and executive
functioning, and is linked to violent behaviours
(Sommers et al., 2006).
• Implications:
• The profound effect that drugs have on the brain can lead to lasting
changes in personality, underscoring the need to understand the
biological basis of substance misuse and its impacts.
Alcoholism and Borderline
Personality Disorder (BPD)
• 78% of individuals diagnosed
with BPD have a co-occurring
substance use disorder (Trull et
al., 2018)
• Alcohol use disorders are 3.35
times more likely to be
diagnosed with BPD
• Common substances abused:
Alcohol, cocaine, opiates
• Alcoholism is the most prevalent
substance use disorder in
individuals with BPD
Challenges of Co-occurring
Disorders
• Higher levels of distress, suicidal thoughts, and other
addictive behaviours (binge eating, gambling)
• Difficulty staying in treatment
• Reduced treatment responsiveness compared to those
with only one disorder (BPD or AUD)
• Greater life challenges for individuals with both
disorders
Factors Contributing to Co-
occurrence
• Genetic pathways: Common genes may increase risk for both BPD and
AUD
• Environmental factors: Childhood maltreatment (physical, emotional, or
sexual abuse) linked to both disorders
• Self-medication: Individuals with BPD may use alcohol to reduce
emotional intensity, leading to dependency

• Substance Use and the Endogenous Opioid System

• Alcohol, opiates, and cocaine activate the endogenous opioid system,
which relieves pain and drives reward behavior
• BPD symptoms linked to a malfunctioning endogenous opioid system
• Individuals with BPD may abuse substances that stimulate this system to
manage symptoms
Personality
and Disease
• Sutin et al. (2013):
Impulsiveness is a
significant predictor for
developing diseases
• Chronic diseases
associated with modest
reductions in openness
over time
• Longitudinal study
highlights the connection
between personality traits
and disease development
Dementia and Personality Changes
• Dementia leads to loss of mental
functions (memory, language,
motor control)
• Frontotemporal dementia linked
to rapid, significant personality
changes (Rankin et al., 2005)
• Limited insight into personality
changes in individuals with
frontotemporal dementia
• Brain injury due to diseases or
stroke can cause personality
changes
Dementia and Psychological
Challenges
• Personality changes in dementia have a biological basis
• Social factors: Institutionalization, lack of stimulation
can worsen the appearance of disengagement
• Positive impacts of familiar stimuli like music on
individuals with dementia (example:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NKDXuCE7LeQ)
 HIV and Personality
• High-risk behavior such as binge drinking
impairs judgment and increases risky sexual
practices
• Risk-taking personality traits linked to HIV
contraction (Kalichman et al., 2007)
• Personality changes in some individuals due to
HIV-associated dementia (HAD)
• Symptoms of HAD: Cognitive difficulties, motor
dysfunction, behavioral changes (lethargy, lack
of emotional responsiveness)
• Stress of an HIV-positive diagnosis can lead to
psychological distress and personality changes
• New antiretroviral treatments and reduced
stigma can help mitigate psychological
stressors
• Incidence of HAD has reduced with
antiretroviral medications, but 20% of people
Neurotransmitters
and Their
Influence
• Neurotransmitters
regulate mood, behavior,
calmness, and appetite.
• Imbalance can result in
mood changes and
psychological disorders.
• Visual: Brain
highlighting different
regions and associated
neurotransmitters.
Serotonin
• Regulates
• appetite
• sleep
• memory
• mood
• muscle contraction.
• Linked to depression: Low levels of serotonin
metabolites found in depressed patients.
Dopamine
• Regulates
• motor behavior
• Motivation
• emotional arousal.
• Imbalance linked to disorders: Low dopamine =
Parkinson’s disease, high dopamine =
schizophrenia.
 GABA
GABA is an inhibitory
neurotransmitter,
blocking certain brain
signals and reducing
nervous system
activity.

It produces a calming
effect, reducing
anxiety, stress, and
fear.
Glutamate

• Responsible for fast

excitatory synapses,
modifiable in strength.
• Active in thought,
learning, and emotion.
• Excess can lead to
excitotoxicity, causing
strokes and seizures.
Neurotransmitter Imbalance &
Personality
• Imbalances may lead to psychological disorders.
• Drugs can alter neurotransmitter levels (e.g., cocaine
increases dopamine).
• Neurotransmitters influence personality traits and
emotional responses.
• Example: Low dopamine can result in low motivation
and a tendency for addictive behavior.
Genes and Personality
• Personality is influenced by both genes and
neurotransmitters.
• Example: Dementia caused by gene mutations affects
brain function, resulting in personality changes.
• Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, each
containing genes.
• Genes consist of DNA which determines specific traits.
Dominant &
Recessive Genes
• Some alleles are dominant,
while others are recessive.
• Example: Eye color is
determined by the
interaction of dominant and
recessive alleles.
• Visual: Eye color
inheritance chart showing
dominant brown allele and
recessive blue allele.
Gene Mutations
& Environmental
influence on Gene
expression
• Genes can mutate, leading
to significant changes in the
body or personality.
• Example: Mutation linked to
Jacob’s dementia.
• Genes can be influenced by
environmental factors.
• Example: High intelligence
genes need educational
exposure to manifest.
Measuring Genetic Influence
• Behavioural genetics is a field that examines the
relationship between genetic inheritance and behavioral
traits, including personality and psychological well-being.
• Challenges in Measurement:
• Unlike tangible physical traits (e.g., height, eye color), personality
traits are multifaceted and influenced by numerous variables,
making them complex to measure.
• Research Methodology Overview:
• Twin Studies: A primary method for assessing genetic influence
on personality.
• Adoption Studies: Another method that compares adopted
individuals to their biological and adoptive families to isolate
genetic effects from environmental influences.
 Twin Studies Explained
Types of Twins:
Identical Twins (Monozygotic, MZ):
Formed from a single fertilized egg that
splits, sharing 100% of their genetic material.
Fraternal Twins (Dizygotic, DZ): Develop
from two separate eggs fertilized
simultaneously, sharing about 50% of their
genetic material.

Procedure in Twin Studies:

• Twins participate in personality
assessments, such as questionnaires and
behavioral tasks.
• Data is collected from additional family
members to enhance understanding of
environmental influences.
Analysing Twin Study Data
Researchers analyze whether MZ twins
are more similar in personality traits
than DZ twins, which would suggest a
genetic basis for those traits.

Heritability Estimates Explained:

• 100% Heritability = trait is entirely
genetic (rare).
• 50% Heritability: half genetics &
half environmental
• 0% Heritability: trait has no genetic
basis
The Big Five Personality Traits
Jang, Livesley, and Vernon (1996):
• Estimated that genetic factors are responsible for 41% to
61% of the variance in the Big Five personality traits:
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness,
and neuroticism.

Horsburgh et al. (2009):

• Reported a strong genetic contribution to various personality
traits, including resilience and mental toughness,
emphasizing the complexity of genetic influence on
personality.
Controversial Aspects of Genetic
Research
• Open-Source Genetic Project (2005):
• Initiated by Harvard Medical School, this project aims to collect and share
genetic data from numerous volunteers worldwide to foster collaboration in
genetic research.
• Potential Benefits:
• Accessibility: Lower costs for researchers, especially in developing countries,
enabling them to study genetic influences relevant to their populations.
• Collaborative Research: Opportunities for global studies on genetics without
the need for extensive resources.
• Ethical Concerns:
• Informed Consent: Participants may lack understanding of how their genetic
information could be used, raising concerns about privacy and misuse.
• Long-term Implications: Genetic data could have unforeseen consequences
for participants' descendants, impacting future generations’ privacy rights.
Nature vs. Nurture Debate
• The traditional dichotomy of nature versus nurture is
being increasingly replaced by the understanding that
individuals are products of both genetic predispositions
and environmental influences.
• Interplay of Factors:
• Genes influence the environments individuals choose
(e.g., social circles, risk-taking behaviours), while
environmental factors can affect gene expression (e.g.,
epigenetics), shaping personality over time.
Discussion Questions
• Ethical Considerations: Do you believe the potential
benefits of open-source genetic data outweigh the risks
to individual privacy and autonomy?
• Nature vs. Nurture: How do you view the interplay
between genetic predispositions and environmental
influences in shaping personality traits?