RESEARC

H
DESIGN
PROGRAM- MMS SEM II
COURSE NAME- BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS
RESEARCH DESIGN

• Research design is essentially a plan.

• It is a strategy aimed at ensuring a strong research
argument and credible evidence to tackle the research
problem in hand.
• It is a framework used to conduct a research study. It
involves outlining the overall approach and methods
that will be used to collect and analyze data in order to
answer research questions or test hypotheses.
 DEFINITION

• ‘As the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of

data in a manner that aims to combine the relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure’-by Jahoda

• ‘A master plan, specifying the methods and procedures for

collecting and analyzing the needed information’-by Zikmund
NEED AND PURPOSE

• Reduces inaccuracy
• Increases efficiency and reliability
• Eliminates bias and errors
• Minimizes wastage of time
• Helpful in testing the hypothesis
• Provides a direction to the research
RESEARCH DESIGN PROCESS

• Selection of research topic/problem,

• Framing research design,
• Framing sampling design,
• Collection of data,
• Data analysis/editing, coding, processing and preservation
• Writing research reports
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
RESEARCH DESIGN
• Neutrality: Right from the study assumptions to setting up the study, a neutral
stance must be maintained, free of pre-conceived notions. The researcher’s
expectations or beliefs should not color the findings or interpretation of the
findings. Accordingly, a good research design should address potential sources
of bias and confounding factors to be able to yield unbiased and neutral results.

• Reliability: Reliability is one of the characteristics of research design that refers

to consistency in measurement over repeated measures and fewer random
errors. A reliable research design must allow for results to be consistent, with
few errors due to chance.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
RESEARCH DESIGN
• Validity: Validity refers to the minimization of nonrandom (systematic) errors. A
good research design must employ measurement tools that ensure validity of
the results.

• Generalizability: The outcome of the research design should be applicable to a

larger population and not just a small sample. A generalized method means the
study can be conducted on any part of a population with similar accuracy.

• Flexibility: A research design should allow for changes to be made to the

research plan as needed, based on the data collected and the outcomes of the
study
FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH
DESIGN

• It provides a blueprint of research.

• It limits (dictates) the boundaries of the research activities.
• It enables investigation to anticipate potential problems
KEY ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
• Research Objectives: Clearly define the goals and objectives of the research study. What is the
research trying to achieve or investigate?

• Research Questions or Hypotheses: Formulating specific research questions or hypotheses that

address the objectives of the study. These questions guide the research process.

• Data Collection Methods: Determining how data will be collected, whether through surveys,
experiments, observations, interviews, archival research, or a combination of these methods.

• Sampling: Deciding on the target population and selecting a sample that represents that
population. Sampling methods can vary, such as random sampling, stratified sampling, or
convenience sampling.

• Data Collection Instruments: Developing or selecting the tools and instruments needed to collect
data, such as questionnaires, surveys, or experimental equipment.
KEY ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
• Data Analysis: Defining the statistical or analytical techniques that will be used to analyze the
collected data. This may involve qualitative or quantitative methods, depending on the research
goals.

• Time Frame: Establishing a timeline for the research project, including when data will be
collected, analyzed, and reported.

• Ethical Considerations: Addressing ethical issues, including obtaining informed consent from
participants, ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of data, and adhering to ethical guidelines.

• Resources: Identifying the resources needed for the research, including funding, personnel,
equipment, and access to data sources.

• Data Presentation and Reporting: Planning how the research findings will be presented and
reported, whether through written reports, presentations, or other formats.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
DESIGN

• Qualitative Design
• Quantitative Design
• Experimental Design
• Non- Experimental Design
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Experimental Research Design
• Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT): In a randomized controlled trial (RCT), individuals
are assigned randomly to either an experimental group or a control group. This design
is often used to assess the impact of a treatment or intervention.

2. Quasi-Experimental Research Design

• Non-equivalent Group Design: In this design, two or more groups are compared, but
participants are not randomly assigned. This is common when random assignment is
not feasible or ethical.

3. Observational Research Design

• Cross-Sectional Study: In a cross-sectional study, data is collected from a single point in
time to examine relationships or differences between variables. It does not involve
follow-up over time.
• Longitudinal Study: This design involves collecting data from the same group of
participants over an extended period to study changes and trends over time.
4. Descriptive Research Design
• Survey Research: Surveys involve collecting data from a sample of individuals through
questionnaires or interviews to describe characteristics, attitudes, or opinions.
• Case Study: Case studies involve an in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or
phenomenon. They are often used to gain a deep understanding of a unique case.

5. Correlational Research Design

• Correlational Study: This design examines the relationships between two or more
variables to determine if they are associated. However, it does not establish causation.

6. Ex Post Facto Research Design

• In this design, researchers examine existing conditions or behaviors and look for
potential causes retrospectively. It’s useful when it’s not feasible to manipulate variables
(eg: delinquent behavior).
7. Exploratory Research Design
• Pilot Study: A pilot study is a small-scale preliminary investigation conducted before a full-
scale research project to test research procedures and gather initial data.

8. Cohort Study
• Cohort studies follow a group of individuals (cohort) over a period of time to assess the
development of specific outcomes or conditions. They are common in epidemiology.

9. Action Research
• Action research is often used in educational or organizational settings. Researchers work
collaboratively with practitioners to address practical problems and make improvements.
10. Meta-Analysis
• A meta-analysis involves the statistical synthesis of data from multiple studies on the
same topic to provide a more comprehensive overview of research findings.

11. Cross-Sequential Design

• This design combines elements of both cross-sectional and longitudinal research to
examine age-related changes while comparing different cohorts.

12. Grounded Theory (referred to as exploratory design)

• Grounded theory is a qualitative research approach that focuses on developing theories
or explanations grounded in the data collected during the research process (adopt
towards an app).
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUALITATIVE
AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

• Qualitative research is subjective and exploratory; it determines relationships

between collected data and observations. It is usually carried out through
interviews with open-ended questions, observations that are described in
words, etc.

• Quantitative research, on the other hand, is more objective and employs

statistical approaches. It establishes the cause-and-effect relationship among
variables using different statistical and computational methods. This type of
research design is usually done using surveys and experiments.
HOW TO CHOOSE APPROPRIATE
RESEARCH DESIGN
• Choosing the appropriate research design for our study requires careful consideration of various
factors.

• Started by clarifying our research objectives and the type of data we need to collect.

• Determine whether our study is exploratory, descriptive, or experimental in nature.

• Consider the availability of resources, time constraints, and the feasibility of implementing the
different research designs.

• Review existing literature to identify similar studies and their research designs, which can serve as a
guide.

• Ultimately, the chosen research design should align with our research questions, provide the
necessary data to answer them, and be feasible given our own specific requirements/constraints.

• Research design can be modified during the course of a study based on emerging insights, practical
constraints, or unforeseen circumstances.
HOW TO ENSURE THE
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF
CHOSEN RESEARCH DESIGN
• Validity refers to the accuracy and meaningfulness of the findings of the studies.

• Reliability relates to the consistency and stability of the measurements or observations.

• To enhance validity, research variables should be carefully defined, established

measurement scales or protocols should be used, and data through appropriate methods
should be collected.

• Consider conducting a pilot study to identify and address any potential issues before full
implementation.

• To enhance reliability, standardized procedures should be used, appropriate statistical

techniques for data analysis should be employed.

• It is also essential to document and report the methodology clearly, allowing for replication
and scrutiny by other researchers.
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
DESIGN
• Exploratory research is usually conducted at the outset of research projects.
• It is usually conducted when the researcher does not have much information
about the problem(s).

SAKA Rahmon Olawale et al 2023

PRIMARY RESEARCH
METHODS

• Primary research is information gathered directly from the subject. It can be

through a group of people or even an individual.

• Such a research can be carried out directly by the researcher himself or can
employ a third party to conduct it on their behalf.

• Primary research is specifically carried out to explore a certain problem which

requires an in-depth study.
SURVEYS/POLLS

• Surveys/polls are used to gather information from a predefined group of

respondents. It is one of the most important quantitative method.

• Various types of surveys or polls can be used to explore opinions, trends, etc.
With the advancement in technology, surveys can now be sent online and can
be very easy to access.

• For instance, use of a survey app through tablets, laptops or even mobile
phones. This information is also available to the researcher in real time as well.

• Nowadays, most organizations offer short length surveys and rewards to

respondents, in order to achieve higher response rates.
INTERVIEWS

• While you may get a lot of information from public sources, but sometimes an in
person interview can give in-depth information on the subject being studied.

• Such a research is a qualitative research method. An interview with a subject

matter expert can give you meaningful insights that a generalized public source
won’t be able to provide.

• Interviews are carried out in person or on telephone which have open-ended

questions to get meaningful information about the topic.
FOCUS GROUPS

• Focus group is yet another widely used method in exploratory research. In

such a method a group of people is chosen and are allowed to express their
insights on the topic that is being studied.

• Although, it is important to make sure that while choosing the individuals in

a focus group they should have a common background and have
comparable experiences.
OBSERVATIONS

• Observational research can be qualitative observation or quantitative

observation.

• Such a research is done to observe a person and draw the finding from their
reaction to certain parameters.

• In such a research, there is no direct interaction with the subject.

• A survey is sent to a given set of audience to understand their opinions about the size of
mobile phones when they purchase one. Based on such information organization can dig
deeper into the topic and make business related decision.

• An interview with an employee can give you more insights to find out the degree of job
satisfaction, or an interview with a subject matter expert of quantum theory can give you
in-depth information on that topic.

• A focus group helps a research identify the opinions of consumers if they were to buy a
phone. Such a research can help the researcher understand what the consumer value
while buying a phone. It may be screen size, brand value or even the dimensions. Based
on which the organization can understand what are consumer buying attitudes, consumer
opinions, etc.

• An FMCG company wants to know how it’s consumer react to the new shape of their
product. The researcher observes the customers first reaction and collects the data, which
is then used to draw inferences from the collective information.
SECONDARY RESEARCH
METHODS

• Secondary research is gathering information from previously published

primary research.

• In such a research you gather information from sources likes case

studies, magazines, newspapers, books, etc.
ONLINE RESEARCH

• In today’s world, this is one of the fastest way to gather information on any
topic. A lot of data is readily available on the internet and the researcher can
download it whenever he needs it.

• An important aspect to be noted for such a research is the genuineness and

authenticity of the source websites that the researcher is gathering the
information from.
LITERATURE RESEARCH
• Literature research is one of the most inexpensive method used for discovering a
hypothesis.

• Sources can include newspapers, magazines, books from library, documents from
government agencies, specific topic related articles, literature, Annual reports,
published statistics from research organizations and so on.

• Government agencies have authentic information but sometimes may come with a
nominal cost.

• Educational institutions carry out more number of research than any other entities.

• Commercial sources provide information on major topics like political agendas,

demographics, financial information, market trends and information, etc.
CASE STUDY RESEARCH
• Case study research can help a researcher with finding more information
through carefully analyzing existing cases which have gone through a similar
problem.

• Such exploratory data analysis are very important and critical especially in
today’s business world.

• The researcher just needs to make sure he analyses the case carefully in regard
to all the variables present in the previous case against his own case.

• It is very commonly used by business organizations or social sciences sector or

even in the health sector.
• A researcher needs to find out what is the percentage of people that prefer a specific
brand phone. The researcher just enters the information he needs in a search engine
and gets multiple links with related information and statistics.

• A company has low sales. It can be easily explored from available statistics and market
literature if the problem is market related or organization related or if the topic being
studied is regarding financial situation of the country, then research data can be
accessed through government documents or commercial sources.

• A particular orthopedic surgeon has the highest success rate for performing knee
surgeries. A lot of other hospitals or doctors have taken up this case to understand and
benchmark the method in which this surgeon does the procedure to increase their
success rate.
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
• Descriptive research is
undertaken to describe answers
to questions of ‘who’, ‘what’,
‘where’, ‘when’, and ‘how’.

• The descriptive research design

involves usage of a range of
qualitative and quantitative
research methods to collect data
Malhotra et al 2012 that helps in accurately
describing a research problem.
• It aims to systematically obtain information to describe a phenomenon, situation, or
population.
• It can be used in social science research to explore and document the nature and scope of a
problem, to identify trends and patterns, and to provide a basis for subsequent research.
EXAMPLES- DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH QUESTIONS

• What are the demographic characteristics of a particular population?

• What is the prevalence of a particular health condition or risk factor?

• What are the attitudes and beliefs of a particular group towards a

particular issue?

• What are the behaviors and experiences of individuals who have been
exposed to a particular intervention or treatment?

https://www.voxco.com/blog/descriptive-research-design/
CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN
• Cross-sectional studies collect and measure data from one specific sample only once at
only one point in time.

• Sample surveys are cross-sectional studies whose samples are drawn in such a way as to
be representative of a specific population.

• These studies are usually presented with a margin of error.

• In a single cross-sectional study, data are only collected a single time from one specific
sample. In market data collection, this research design is not very common, as we are
normally interested in changes and developments.

• Cohort studies (multiple cross-sectional design) consist of a series of surveys conducted

at specific time intervals. The ‘cohort’ is a group of elements who are in the same position
or experience the same event at a given time interval.
EXAMPLE- OBSERVATIONAL
STUDY
• Company XYZ is a girls’ shoe brand catering to girls, specifically between the ages of 4 to

14.

• They want to start selling shoes for boys of the same age group as well and therefore want

to gather information on the kind of shoes boys want to wear. They decide to conduct

market research & choose the observational method to learn about different shoes boys

wear nowadays.

• Naturalistic observation can be conducted by observing boys’ shoes in schools, malls,

playgrounds, and other public spaces.

• This will help company XYZ identify the kind of shoe boys wear nowadays so that they can

create the kind of products that will appeal to this audience.

LONGITUDINAL
DESIGN

• Longitudinal studies repeatedly collect and measure the same sample units of a
population over time.

• They reveal changes that take place over time.

• It is mostly used in medical research and other areas like psychology or sociology.

• They often use surveys to collect data that is either qualitative or quantitative.
LONGITUDINAL DESIGN-TYPES

• Panel studies: They are a very important type of longitudinal design for market data
collection. Panels are samples of elements, often households or consumers, that have
agreed to provide information at certain time intervals over a long period of time, for
example once a week over five years. Thus, in panel studies you ask the same people
over a longer period.

• Trend studies: In trend studies, the elements from whom you collect your data have the
same characteristics (e.g. age group, gender, income), but they are not the same people.

https://www.ormacode.organicdatanetwork.net/
EXPERIMENTAL OR CAUSAL OR
CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

• Type of research design which is predetermined and structured in nature. It is

used for causal or conclusive research, which is conducted quantitatively.

• It is called causal research, because it is helpful in exploring the cause-and-effect

relationship of a research problem.

• The main objective of casual research is to test the hypothesis which were
defined in the exploratory research design.

• Causal research is simply opposite to the descriptive research, as with the help
of experimentation, it can interpret whether the relationship is causal or not.
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN- TYPES
• Cause = independent variable(s)

• Effect = dependent variable(s)

• Method: Experiments

• Experimentation as a technique is generally used when conducting causal research.

• There are two kinds of experimentation techniques available to researchers namely

(a) Laboratory experiment

(b) Field experiment

• A laboratory experiment is one in which a researcher creates a situation with the desired
conditions and then manipulates some while controlling other variables.

• A field experiment on the other hand is a research study in a realistic or natural situation,
although it too, involves the manipulation of one or more independent variables.
ERRORS AFFECTING RESEARCH
DESIGNS

Errors related to improper selection of

respondents
Errors related to accuracy of responses
RESPONDENT SELECTION
ERRORS

1. Population specification error

2. Sampling errors

3. Selection errors

4. Frame errors

5. Survey non-response errors

ERRORS IN ACCURACY OF
RESPONSES

1. Surrogate information errors

2. Measurement errors

3. Question non-response errors

4. Experimental errors
1. POPULATION
SPECIFICATION ERROR

• This type of error occurs when the researcher selects an inappropriate

population to obtain data.

• Example: Packaged goods manufacturers frequently survey housewives because

they are an easy contact. It is assumed housewives decide what is to be
purchased and do the actual purchasing for a household. Increasingly, husbands
may purchase a significant share of the packaged goods and have significant
influence over what is bought.
2. SAMPLING ERROR
• Sampling error occurs when a sample does not accurately represent the population.

• Example: Suppose that tweets (twitter) were used to recruit a random sample of 500
people from the general adult population. After the analysis it was found that the study
was composed of only people aged 18 to 35.

• Because the sampling pool shared so many age group specific traits, the data was not
accurate in representing the general population.

• The more homogeneous the population (meaning people who are similar), the smaller
the sampling error; and as sample size increases, sampling error decreases.

• If a census were conducted (i.e., all elements of the population were included) there
would be no sampling error.
METHODS TO REDUCE
SAMPLING ERRORS

• Increasing sample size: Increasing the sample size will reduce sampling errors. If the
sample size is equal to the complete population, the scope of sampling error is zero.

• Stratification: It refers to dividing the given population into homogeneous and non-
overlapping units or sub-groups (known as stratum) to make the sample more
representative. Grouping is done based on one or more common attributes. For example,
there is a population of 1000 people, out of the entire population, 300 belong to high-
class, 400 belong to middle-class, and 300 belong to low-class. The sizes of these strata
are denoted by S1, S2 and S3.
3. SELECTION
ERROR
• Selection error is the sampling error that occurs when a sample is selected by a non-
probability method.

• Example: Interviewers conducting a small intercept study have a natural tendency to

select those respondents who are the most accessible and agreeable. Such samples often
comprise friends and associates who are rarely representative of the desired population.

• Selection error often reflects people who are easily reached, are better dressed, have
better kept homes, or are more pleasant.

• These types of samples rarely represent the desired population.

• Having clear, written procedures that specify how to select respondents can help to
reduce selection error.
4. FRAME ERROR

• A sampling frame represents all the members of the population.

• It is usually a listing of the respondents you want to sample. Example: The sample frame
for a study at a shopping mall includes all shoppers in the mall during the time of data
collection.

• A commonly used frame for consumer research was the telephone directory. Over time,
this frame has increasingly introduced error because many elements of the population
(households, singles, students) are no longer included in the directory.

• There are also unlisted phone numbers, and cell phones to consider. Some elements are
listed more than once.
4. SURVEY NON-
RESPONSE ERROR
• Non-response error occurs when respondents and non-respondents are too different.
The respondents that we choose should accurately represent the population we want
to sample.

• If non-respondents are not equally distributed across the population, we will not have
an accurate sample. There are two ways in which survey non-response can occur:

(a) Non-contact (the inability to contact all members of the sample frame).

(b) Refusal (non-response to some or all items on the measurement instrument).

• Responders often represent positive or negative views about the survey topic and may
not be representative of the targeted population.

• Virtually every survey contains some degree of error from the inability to reach a
representative spectrum of respondents.
ERRORS RELATED TO
ACCURACY OF RESPONSES

1. SURROGATE INFORMATION ERROR

• Occurs when there is variation between the information required to solve the
problem and the information sought by the researcher.

• In some research situations, the needed information cannot be obtained, and

we may need to substitute the data that will act as a surrogate for the required
information.

• Examples: Price-quality relationship, preference of COKE based on taste.

2. MEASUREMENT ERROR
• Measurement error is the difference between the measured value and true value.

• This error comes up at many points throughout the research process, from the
development of survey to analyzing the findings.

• Can be introduced by the interviewer, the questionnaire, or the respondent.

• Examples of measurement error from the interviewer and questionnaire might include
faulty wording of questions; bias in representative graphics materials; unintentional
interviewer modification of the question’s wording; interviewer misinterpretation or mis
recording of the response.

• Respondents may exaggerate their income in order to impress an interviewer; the reported
income will then reflect an unknown amount of measurement error; measurement error is
particularly difficult to control because it can arise from many different sources.
3. QUESTION NON-
RESPONSE ERROR

• Some respondents refuse to answer the entire survey.

• Maybe it pertains to a sensitive topic.

• Some may choose not to answer specific questions.

• Most often, respondents refuse to provide personal information that may place
them at risk.
4. EXPERIMENTAL ERROR

• Experiments are designed to measure the impact of one or more independent variables
on a dependent variable.

• For example: A retail chain may increase the price of selected items in four outlets and
leave the price of the same items, constant in four similar outlets in an attempt to
discover the best pricing strategy.

• However, unique weather patterns, traffic conditions, or competitors' activities may

affect the sales at one set of stores and not the other.

• Thus, the experimental results will reflect the impact of variables other than price.

• Like measurement error, experimental error can arise from a number of sources.