ADVANCED COMMUNICATION

SKILLS AND PUBLIC SPEAKING

BY

JOSEPH OKUMU

BBA MARKETING (UCU), ADV. DIP. THEO- AFMIN;

MAOLM (UCU), PGDIMATHE (IUIU), PhD (Fellow)
0772479819, 0701479819
[email protected]

FOR: BBA, BPLM, BHRM AND FOUNDATION STUDIES

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 Course Outline
 1. Preamble
 2. Understanding communication
 3. Elements of Communication
 4. The communication process
 5. Barriers to Communication
 6. Effective communication
 7. When and Why do teachers communicate
 8. Types of Communication teachers need to use
 9. Communication skills; communication skills needed by
teachers
 10. Written communication
 11. Reading skills
 12. Public speaking
 13. Listening

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 REFERENCES
Adler, R., Rosenfeld, L. and Proctor, R. (2001). Interplay: the process of
interpersonal communication (8th edn), Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt.
Baugh, L. S. (1998). How to Write First-Class Letters. New Delhi: Viva Books
Private Ltd.
Fruehling, R. T., & Lacombe, J. M. (2000). Communicating for Results. Delhi:
Virender Kumar Arya.
German, K.M. (2010). Principles of public speaking. Boston; Allyn and
Bacon.
Griffin, C. L. (2003). Invitation to Public speaking. California: Thomson
Learning, Inc.
Kaul, A. (2005). Effective Business Communication. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of
India Private Ltd.
Kennedy-Isern, K. (2001). The write path basics of paragraph writing. Boston:
Thomson Learning.Inc.
Krotov, V. (2016). Mindful written communication. Master the most
fundamental principles of written communication in less than one
hour. Available at; www.amazon.com.
Max, W. F. (2005). Written communication: an educator’s calling
card. Education World.
Valenzano III, Joseph M, Braden, S. W. (2012). The speaker, the tradition, the
practice of public speaking. USA: Fountain Head Press.
Yale University (2019). Public speaking for teachers. Lecturing without fear.
Zoe, N. (2018). How to improve your writing skills. Exercises you should know
about. The Writing Cooperative. 3
 Preamble

Teaching is all about communication –

listening, speaking, reading, presenting and
writing. A teacher must therefore be able to
communicate effectively as well as pay
attention to what is being communicated to
him or her.

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Understanding Communication
 What is communication?............. Members views

 Communication comes from the Greek

word ."communis" which means to share. It is
thus the process of sharing information that is
generated.

 Communication is the transmission and reception

of ideas, feelings or attitudes, verbally or non-
verbally (Kaul, 2005).

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 Dimensions/Elements of Communication

Generally, there are five elements of communication

and they include:
 The Source/sender/Encoder/Speaker
 The

Destination/receiver/Decoder/Listener/Audience
 The Message
 The medium/Channel
 The Feedback

NB: There is always noise during communication

that needs to be managed so that it does not
sabotage the whole process

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 The Communication Process

N.B-
Encoding is when the message is transformed into an
understandable sign and symbol system. E.g. Speaking is
encoding, as are writing, printing, and filming a television
program. Once received, the message is ‘decoded’; that is, the
signs and symbols are interpreted. Decoding occurs through
listening, reading, or watching that television show.

Noise: is any type of disruption that interferes with the

transmission or interpretation of information from the sender to
the receiver. In marketing it is over-communication.

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Barriers to Communication/Noise
in the communication process
The barriers may be categorized into the following:
 Language barriers, e.g. Different but unfamiliar languages,

unfamiliar accents, difficult words, etc

 Physical barriers, e.g. Cars hooting, noise from rioters,

physical features, etc.

 Physiological barriers

 Psychological barriers

 Systematic barriers

 Attitudinal barriers

 Emotional barriers

 Cultural barriers

 Time barriers

 Etc

Members suggestions on the different barriers that may fall

under each of the above categories and how to manage them. 8
 Effective Communication
 …………… members’ views

 Being able to communicate effectively is the most

important of all life skills.

 Communication is effective when a message is understood

the same way as intended.

 Effective communication serves the purpose for which it

was planned or designed.

 When the desired effect is not achieved, barriers to

communication are explored, with the intention of
discovering how and why the communication has been
ineffective.

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Essentials for Effective
Communication
 Different scholars have referred to the 7Cs of communication
as essentials for effective communication. The 7Cs of
communication are:
i. clarity,
ii. completeness,
iii. correctness,
iv. Conciseness
v. courtesy,
vi. Consideration
vii. Concreteness

However other issues may also be considered, e.g. consistency,

timeliness, effective listening, consultation and feedback among
others

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When and Why do teachers
communicate
Members suggestions..........................

As public speakers a teacher must have a reason for

communicating right from the onset……….. Below are some
reasons as to why we communicate:
 To persuade.
 To give or provide information.
 To seek information.
 To express our emotions e.g. courage or fear, joy or sorrow
 Etc

For us to do the above effectively, we need the art, skill, tools,

ability and will.

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 Importance of Communication to Teachers

i. Foundation for planning

ii. Helps in lesson and classroom organization
iii. Motivates students
iv. Source of information for decision making
v. Helps in altering students’ attitudes
vi. Helps in socializing
vii. It assists in controlling the students
viii. Enables direction and instruction of students
ix. Etc

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Types of Communication we should use
 Verbal communication : This refers to communication by word of mouth

 Non-verbal communication: This means the process of conveying meaning in the form of
non-word messages or word-less cues. For example, facial expression, posture, gesture, time,
touch, personal appearance, space and distance, eye contact, etc

 Written communication: Involves the transmission of ideas, feelings or attitudes from head
to paper.

A teacher needs to know when best to use each of the above types. However, non-verbal
communication is in most cases used together with verbal communication.

Reflection
Using examples, examine the role of time and eye contact in communication in an academic
setting like IUEA.

ASSIGN I: In groups of 5-6 members, prepare a one page presentation/ article/ story in which all
aspects of NON-VERBAL COMMUICATION can be clearly elaborated/demonstrated. The article may
stem from/hinge on any subject on one of the following commonly communicated aspects of life:
a) Political b) Economic c) Social d) Cultural e)Technological.
{N.B:DO NOT attempt to give meanings of the terms, find creative ways in which they will come
out effectively in your story/ article while presenting it………(Score: 30 marks=>….
…Relevance to chosen subject-10, Presentation- 10, Content i.e. Evidence of non
verbal cues in the text -5, evidence of non-verbal while presenting - 5)}

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 Communication Skills
What is a “skill”?.........................
 A skill is a learned or acquired ability to carry out a task with pre-
determined results often within a given amount of time, energy, or
both. Clearly, we may already have certain skills BUT perfecting
them comes with practice or additional learning.

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 Communication skills Needed by a Teacher

Members’ suggestions……………………
 Listening skills
 Speaking skills
 Reading skills
 Presentation skills
 Writing skills; and
 Interpersonal skills among others

Teachers with good communication skills are prepared to instruct, advise

and mentor students entrusted in their care.

Teachers must be able to express themselves verbally and in writing in

order to report students’ progress to parents, explain students’ strengths
and weaknesses so that parents understand the message and be
receptive rather than defensive. The message must be delivered clearly
and with tact.

Schools nowadays sponsor websites that provide additional opportunities

for high-tech written communication. 15
 Written Communication

 Written communication involves everything

that has to be written and transmitted in
the written form.
 The different forms of written
communication include; reports, minutes of
meetings, notices, memos, circulars, and
letters/correspondence among others.

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 When should teachers Use Written
Communication?
 When he or she wants a record for future reference.
 When the learners, parents or administrators need a record for
future reference.
 When the message is complex and requires study by the receiver.
 When the message consists of a step by step procedure.
 When written communication is the only possible means of
communication or when the receiver has hearing impairments.
 When there are many receivers. However, the receivers must be
interested in the subject and will put forth the time and effort to
read and understand.
 When it is cheaper and the receiver is interested in the subject.
 When a copy of the message should go to another person.
 Etc

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Importance of written communication to a teacher

 A teacher’s written communication speaks volumes about his

or her competence (Max, 2005).
 What the teacher writes in the comment section of the report
card displays his or her writing ability.
 Writing can enhance a teacher’s relationship with students,
parents, professional colleagues and the community at large.
However, it can also lead to friction between the parties.
 A teacher should have the ability to apply writing mechanics
including syntax and spelling. A teacher’s writing has the
power to project an image and set a tone in a teacher’s
relationship. The image can be professional or incompetent,
conciliatory or inflammatory, cooperative or antagonistic.
 Proficient writing skills have the ability to boost a teacher’s
credibility. They can promote a teacher’s objectives within
the class by developing integral relations outside class.

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 Characteristics of Good written
communication
 Has a clearly defined purpose.
 Supports a point with specific information.
 The information is clearly connected and arranged.
 The words are appropriate, and the sentences are
clear, concise and correct.
 Good writing is simple and natural.
 Has clearly identifiable ideas and themes
 Consistent and identifiable voice
 Correct Grammar and style
 Credibility or believability
 Thought-provoking or emotionally inspiring. How
readers react to your work will fully determine your
success as a writer.
 A good writer has the ability to engage the audience
without much difficulty

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 The Writing Process
 Prewriting, ideation or discovery
Build on the idea through free-writing,
brainstorming or clustering.
 Drafting
 Revising : Addition, Removal, Replacement,
Rearrangement
 Editing: Spellings, grammar, punctuation,
sentence length
 Publishing

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 Effective Written Communication

Effective writing allows the reader to thoroughly understand

everything you have written. According to Krotov (2016), the
following are the basic principles of effective written communication:

 Write coherent sentences. Make sure each sentence is complete

and devoted to one topic
 Write coherent paragraphs. One paragraph is one unit of thought .
Do not include sentences unrelated to the main thought.
 Use short sentences.
 Be specific and factual.
 Omit redundant words.
 Use simple language.
 Avoid jargon, idioms, acronyms and cultural references.
 Use an active voice to strengthen your writing.
 Use good grammar and punctuation.
 Structure the writing

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 Improving writing skills

 Expand your vocabulary and learn how to

use new words correctly.
 Master English spellings
 Read regularly.
 Learn grammar rules and mechanics of

writing.
 Learn when to capitalize
 Always use the appropriate tense and

punctuations.
 Do practice writing; for practice makes

perfect.
 Etc

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 READING SKILLS
 A teacher must be able to read different types of texts so
as to act as a role model to students and to gain their
credibility.

 There are different reading techniques and students

should be aware of which technique is most suitable for a
particular reading task.

 Knowing when to apply which reading technique is indeed

important, especially under exam conditions when time
constraints come into play and decisions need to be made
depending on time availability and the importance of the
task at hand.

 There are four major techniques of reading. These include,
skimming, scanning, intensive reading and extensive
reading.

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 Reading techniques
 Skimming: Involves reading to know what the text is about at its
most basic level. E.g. a magazine or newspaper. Skimming would help
you mentally and quickly shortlist those articles which you might
consider for a deeper read. You might typically skim to search for a
name in a telephone directory.

 Scanning: This involves getting your eyes to quickly rush across a

sentence. It is used to get just a simple or specific piece of
information. Interestingly, research has concluded that reading off a
computer screen actually inhibits the pathways to effective scanning
and thus, reading of paper is far more conducive to speedy
comprehension of texts.

 Intensive Reading: This means reading critically for the purpose of
understanding the whole document. You need to have your aims clear
in mind when undertaking intensive reading. It is far more time
consuming than scanning or skimming. If you need to list the
chronology of events in a long passage, you will need to read it
intensively. Knowledge resulting from intensive reading persists in
your long term memory.

 Extensive reading: Involves reading for pleasure, leisure or
enjoyment. E.g. novels
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 Good reading habits
 Reading at a good pace
 Staying focused when reading
 Reading every day and often
 Quiet reading
 Checking for understanding
 Taking good care of the book. Do not bend it.
 Focusing on one reading material at a time.
 Setting reading goals for self
 Choosing good times to read during the day.
 Finding a good place to read from.
 Recommending good books to friends.
 Using a bookmark. Do not bend the pages.
 Finishing a book. Give it a chance before abandoning it.
 Look up definitions of new words.
 Look back or skim to refresh your memory of what just happened
 Have self-control. Physical and verbal
 etc

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 Bad reading habits
 Starting to read while feeling that you have to read or there is a force
pushing you to read.
 Having distractions. For example your phone,
 Taking in on too many books at once
 Reading the last page first. This may deter you from reading the rest
of the book and getting details of what you have to read.
 Watching a movie adaptation of a book before reading the book itself;
 Moving your lips when you read.
 Vocalizing: This means pronouncing words in the voice box of the
throat without making sounds.
 Reading everything at the same speed yet for different purposes.
 Regressing out of habit. This means re-reading a word, phrase or
sentence out of habit.
 Reading one word at a time. This slows down reading.
 Judging a book by only its cover
 etc


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 How to improve reading skills
 Keep yourself interested in reading. Practice, practice and
practice. Read everything you come across. Make reading a
habit.
 Find time to visit your local library or bookstore. This
stimulates you to read more and gives you an edge of
excitement.
 Participate in book clubs, books websites such a s
Goodreads, discuss a book you want5 to read with others.
This will make your book experience a lot better.
 Look at book reviews online in magazines or newspapers.
 After finishing a book reward yourself.
 etc

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 PUBLIC SPEAKING
 Public speaking sometimes termed oratory or oration, is the process or act
of performing a presentation or a speech. It focuses around an individual’s
direct speech to a live audience in a structured, deliberate manner in order to
inform, influence, or entertain, etc.

 Public speaking is commonly understood as the formal, face-to-face talking of a

single person to a group of listeners.

 It is commonly said that public speaking is one of the most pervasive fears. It is
estimated that 75% of all people suffer from fear of public speaking.

 In academic training, speaking skills are rarely taught in any formal sense which
may increase anxiety and discomfort. However, public speaking is one of the
most important skills for scholars, and hence a skill commonly tested from
lectures to formal class presentations.

 In public speaking, there are five basic elements, often expressed as; "who is
saying what to whom using what medium with what effects?". These are
described in Lasswell’s model of communication as, the communicator, the
audience, the message, medium and effect.

 etc

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 Purpose of Public Speaking
Public speaking is done for the following reasons among
others:
 to inform

 to influence

 to entertain

 to persuade

 to motivate

 to simply tell a story

 Etc

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 Qualities of a Good Public Speaker
 Ability to engage the audience
 Ability to read the audience
 Ability to change the emotions of listeners
 Friendliness
 Knowledge of the subject matter
 Eloquence (fluency)
 Confidence
 Audibility
 Ability to moderate the voice
 Etc

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 Designing a Public Speech
 List and prioritize the top three goals that you want to accomplish with your
audience.

 Make an audience analysis and clarify why it is important for them to attend the
presentation.

 List the major points of information that you want to convey to your audience.


Set the right tone for your presentation e.g. hopefulness, celebration,
warning, teamwork, etc. Consciously identifying the tone to yourself can help
you cultivate that mood to your audience.
 Design a brief opening (about 5-10% of your total presentation time) that;
a. Presents your goals for the presentation.
b. Clarifies the benefits of the presentation to the audience.
c. Explains the overall layout of your presentation.

 Prepare the body of your presentation (about 70-80% of your presentation

time).

 Design a brief closing (about 5-10% of your presentation time) that

summarizes the key points from your presentation.
 Design time for questions and answers (about 10% of the time of your
presentation). 31
 How to Deliver a Public Speech Effectively…..contd
 Make sure you have a good personal appearance.
 Right from the start, try to make eye contact with each
person for a few seconds throughout your delivery. This
helps to build trust and a relationship between you and the
audience.
 Look up from your notes, every 5-10 seconds, to look into
the audience.
 Speak a little bit louder and a little bit slower than you
normally would do with a friend.
 Vary the volume and rate of your speech.
 Stand with your feet at shoulder-length apart.
 Keep your hands relatively still. Do not keep your hands in
your pockets.
 Consider fear and anxiety as a motivation force to go
through circumstances with acceptance.
 Breathe in and out meditatively to reduce the overwhelm.

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Effective Handling of Presentation Materials
 If you plan to project your slides from a computer onto a
projection screen, check out the computer system before people
come into the room, if possible.

 Use a consistent layout, or organization of colors and images, on

your materials.

 If you use transparencies on an overhead projector, then allocate

one slide for every 3-5 minutes of your presentation. Include 5-8
lines of bulleted phrases on each slide.

 Hand out printed information on slides after you have completed

your presentation. Alternatively, you can hand it out at the
beginning of your presentation and ask the audience not to read it
until you have completed your presentation.

 If you hand out copies of your slides, be sure that the text on the
slides is large enough that your audience can read the text. Be
sure to leave space on the handouts for the audience to make
notes on them.
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 Handling Undesirable Behavior in Academic
Presentations: Use the Intervention Escalator
 Ignore it
 Use silence
 Look at them
 Stand by them
 Ask a question
 Ask for input
 Talk offline
 Divide and conquer
 Address them directly but calmly.
 Eject them.

NB: It is fine to walk between being respectful to individuals while

being a strong leader, but by starting at the bottom of the escalator,
you may never have to get to the most direct actions. Take action early
to maintain a healthy environment in your next meeting, training
session or presentation.

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 Getting comfortable with public speaking

 Recognize that public speaking is an everyday activity. Much of the specific

training in public speaking is designed to force oneself to go back to what you
normally do everyday.

 Recognize the power of fear management. Expert public speakers transfer the
comfort they have in low stakes interactions to formal environments when talking
to others.

 Do away with the assumptions that expert speaking is innate and that expert
speakers are fearless. Expert speakers just know how to manage their fear.

 Handle questions fearlessly. Do not let difficult questions scare you but they
should help you alleviate nervousness and improve performance.

 Anticipate possible questions and prepare responses. This improves confidence

and impresses the audience.

 Have a structured method of answering questions.

 Consider your posture and body language.

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 How to overcome stage fright/Glossophobia
 Know your stuff. Be prepared
 Practice, practice and practice
 Talk yourself down, think positively
 Wallow in the worst
 Visualize yourself giving a perfect presentation
 Think positively
 Prepare for that moment when things have to go wrong
 Keep calm, don’t rush your presentation. Start slow and allow
yourself time to get into a comfortable pace.
 Focus on Getting through the First 5 Minutes
 Never apologize for being nervous
 Don’t share your mistakes
 Arrive early, stretch, breath
 Double check everything
 Don’t fight your stage fright … work with it
 Etc

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 LISTENING SKILLS
 What is Listening?............. Members’

suggestions

 Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret

messages in the communication process.

 What is the difference between listening and

hearing?................. Members’ suggestions

 Hearing refers to the sounds that you hear, whereas

listening requires focus as well.
 In other words; listening, means being aware of both verbal
and non-verbal messages.

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Benefits of good listening skills to Teachers
 ................. Members’ suggestions

 Improved relationships with students and colleagues.

 Improved self-esteem and confidence.
 Higher grades amongst learners and in academic
work.
 better health and general well-being.
 better students’ satisfaction.
 greater productivity with fewer mistakes.
 increased sharing of information that in turn can lead
to more creative and innovative work amongst
students.
 Etc.

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 Principles of Listening
 Preparing oneself to listen, relax:
 Paying attention
 Put the speaker at ease
 Remove distractions.
 Empathize.
 Be patient
 Avoid personal prejudice.
 Listen to the tone.
 Listen for ideas – not just words.
 Wait and watch for non-verbal communication.
 Ask instead of commenting.
 Etc

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 Types of Listening
 Active Listening:requires that the listener fully concentrates,
understands, responds and then remembers what is being said.

 Passive Listening: Simply receiving the message without giving any

external indications.

 Responsive Listening: listening with the intent of understanding instead

of replying.

 Critical Listening: Listening to evaluate, analyze or scrutinize what is

being said.

 Discriminative listening: Listening to identify different sounds but not

the meaning of words and phrases.

 Comprehensive Listening: This involves understanding the message

being communicated. Concentrate on the message and its source.

 Therapeutic or Empathic Listening: Involves listening to understand

the feelings and emotions of the speaker; to put yourself into the speaker’s
shoes and share their thoughts.

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 Types of Listening..... Contd
 Enjoyment Listening: involves attending to sounds for pleasure
e.g. music, sports broadcasts, comedians or poetry readings.

 Pseudo Listening: Pretending to listen but not really absorbing

anything from the conversation.

 Appreciative Listening: Listening to enjoy as well as

appreciate. E.g. listening to your favorite song.

 Informational Listening: Listening to learn.

 Rapport Listening: Listening to encourage the other person to

trust and like us.

 Selective Listening: Listening while filtering out some of the

message.

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 How can teachers help students to develop their listening skills

Teachers and students need to work with good materials

including authentic texts and tasks. The tasks include:
 Preparing for the lecture by reading a pre-lecture handout

on the lecture topic.

 Listening for essential factual information.

 A focused study of key language in the lecture such as the

language of association.
 Listening for association and evaluation in the lecture.

 Processing information from a lecture using notes.

 etc

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 Listening to Academic Presentations

 Effective listening is essential in an academic context.

 Students need good listening skills to interpret what people

are saying in various academic situations. E.g. They need to
understand the content of a lecture at the speed it is
delivered.

 Class presentations also require good listening skills as

seminars, where students are expected to understand and
build on the contributions of others.

 Other events include; Tutorials, discussions, meetings with

tutors and supervisors, group projects and social
interactions. Therefore students exchange, discuss and
apply critical thinking to a considerable amount of
knowledge in oral settings.

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 Challenges of Listening in an Academic Context

 A lecture can present many linguistic challenges such as; -

speed of delivery
- accent
- academic and specialist vocabulary
- Culture

 Dealing with the content of the lecture.

 The cognitive processing of numbers and statistics.
 Working out details from the main point.
 Visual challenges such as the use of PowerPoint slides.
 Failure of students to know why they are listening.
 Inability to make a record of the content for future use.

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ORGANIZING AND PRESIDING OVER A DISCUSSION GROUP

 Effective facilitation of a discussion involves the recognition

and employment of different perspectives and different
skills to create an inclusive environment.

45
 Facilitating Effective Group Discussions

 In order to facilitate effective group discussions, it

is important to consider the features of effective
discussions, and conditions that promote small
group interaction and engagement.
 Discussion is a powerful mechanism for active
learning; a well-facilitated discussion allows
participants to explore new ideas while
recognizing and valuing the contributions of
others.
 For a group discussion to be effective, the
teacher or facilitator must do the following:
 i. Create an inclusive environment
 ii. Keep discussions positive and constructive
 iii. Encourage participants

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 1. Create an inclusive environment (Do’s and Don’ts)

 Opportunities for reflection:

 What do the participants bring to the group?
(Characteristics that may give you a unique perspective)
 Self-awareness; awareness of others:
◦ What do I bring to the group? What surprises or
challenges me?
◦ What behaviors am I most familiar or comfortable with?
◦ What behaviors challenge me?

47
 Do’s:

 Allow participants to introduce themselves – you can

even set up an ice breaker to have pairs of students
introduce each other.
 Be clear about expectations and intentions amongst
participants and the facilitator.
 Use an inclusive language.
 Ask for clarification if unclear about a participant’s
intent or question.
 Treat participants with respect and consideration.
 Develop an awareness for barriers to learning
(cultural; social; experiential, etc).
 Provide sufficient time and space for participants to
gather their thoughts and contribute to discussions.
 Provide opportunities for participants to pair-share.

48
 Dont’s
 Use certain conventions or language that excludes certain
groups from understanding the context of the discussion, or
make them feel uncomfortable.
 Assume that all participants have the same expectations when
the group first convenes.
 Over-generalize behavior or have stereotypical expectations of
participants.
 Use or allow others to use disrespectful language or tone, or
disrespectful non-verbal communication.
 Convey a sense of self-importance or superiority.
 Allow only the dominant or more verbal participants to take
over the conversation.
 Discourage alternate views or counter-arguments.
 Try to be someone else- be yourself.


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 2. Keep discussions constructive and positive

 Make the discussion functional by clarifying the goals of each session to

the group.
 Establish ground rules.
 Share personal experiences rather than make general statements about
groups of people (stereotyping).
 Ask dominant participants to allow others to speak.
 Give all participants a voice at the start - highlight the value of a
diversity of perspectives as an essential part of the process.
 Go over constructive and destructive group behaviors at the start of the
discussion.
 Request that if participants challenge others’ ideas, they back it up with
evidence, appropriate experiences, and/or appropriate logic.
 Try to keep the group on task without rushing them.
 If the group starts to veer in the direction of negativity and/or pointless
venting, ask them how they would like to address this.
 Step back when a group is functional/functioning – help participants
become independent learners; take control of their learning.

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 3. Encouraging participants

Encouraging participation can be accomplished by:

 Writing participants’ comments on the whiteboard.

 Asking follow-up questions, and paraphrasing the comments for

everyone to ponder. A combination of initiating and probing

questions can be an effective approach to bring out participants’
ideas further.
 Asking the contributor for further clarification and/or elaboration.

 Re-visiting past contributions and incorporating them into

subsequent discussions.
 Encouraging others to add their reactions or ideas to build on

someone’s comment.
 Not being afraid to admit your own ignorance or confusion if you

don’t know something – invite others to provide resources, and

use the opportunity to discuss with the group how one might go
about researching the issue.
 Discomfort and silence are ok, but balance with a clearly stated

context and purpose.

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