UNIT I.

GENERAL
GEOLOGY
 LEARNING
At the OBJECTIVES:
end of the unit, students will be able
to:

• discuss the importance of Geology not

only as a subject but also in civil
engineering profession.
• solve practical problems, which involve
numerical calculations from working
formulas, often with the conclusion of
experimentally determined coefficient,
and
• to develop the ability/skill to solve CE
Board related problems in general
geology
 1.

GEOLOGY IN
CIVIL
ENGINEERING
1. GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

The study of earth's structure in connection

to civil engineering is the focus of
engineering geology, which is concerned
with ensuring that construction projects are
designed in a safe and cost-effective
manner.
1. GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

Geologists study the land to determine

whether it is stable enough to support the
proposed project. They also study water
patterns to determine if a particular site is
prone to flooding. Some civil engineers use
geologists to examine rocks for important
metals, oil, natural gas and ground water.
 2.

BRANCH OF
GEOLOGY
2. BRANCH OF GEOLOGY

The several fields that comprise geology

can be arranged according to the
fundamental classifications of physical and
historical geology. These geological
specialties are time-oriented. They often
worry about reconstructing the past,
whether it is with landscapes, magnetic
fields, or fossils.
2. BRANCH OF GEOLOGY

2.1.1. Physical Geology

A branch of geology that studies the
structure, composition, physical qualities, constituent
rocks and minerals, and surficial features of the earth.
2.1.2. Geophysicsoceanic
The study of physical properties like density
and magnetism of the Earth or its parts. Engineering
geophysics is a branch of exploration geophysics,
which aims at solving civil engineering problems by
interpreting the subsurface concerned.
2. BRANCH OF GEOLOGY
2.1.4. Geochemistry
A branch that is relatively more recent and
deals with the occurrence, distribution, abundance,
and mobility of different elements in the earth crust.
2.1.5. Mineralogy
This deals with the study of minerals. Minerals
are basic units with different rocks and ores of the
earth are made up of.
2.1.6. Petrology
The study of rocks is referred as petrology.
The earth’s crust are made up of several types of
rocks and from the aspect of civil engineering, this is
the most important branch of geology.
2. BRANCH OF GEOLOGY

2.1.7 HISTORICAL GEOLOGY

-Historical geology is a branch of geology that focuses on
the study of Earth's history and the processes that have
shaped the planet over geological time. It involves
investigating the Earth's past through the examination of
rocks, fossils, and other geological features to understand
the evolution of the Earth and the life forms that have
inhabited it.

2.1.8 PALEONTOLOGY
-Paleontology is the scientific study of prehistoric life,
including the study of fossils, ancient organisms, and the
evolution of life on Earth. Paleontologists, scientists who
specialize in this field, examine and analyze the remains of
plants, animals, and other organisms that lived in the
2. BRANCH OF GEOLOGY
2.1.8 PALEONTOLOGY
-Paleontology is the scientific study of prehistoric life,
including the study of fossils, ancient organisms, and the
evolution of life on Earth. Paleontologists, scientists who
specialize in this field, examine and analyze the remains of
plants, animals, and other organisms that lived in the
distant past.

2.1.9 PALEOGRAPHY
-Paleography is the study of ancient handwriting and the
deciphering of historical texts. This field is essential for
understanding and interpreting historical manuscripts,
documents, and inscriptions. Paleographers analyze the
script, style, and language of written records to date them,
identify their origin, and gain insights into the historical,
cultural, and social contexts in which they were produced.
2. BRANCH OF GEOLOGY

2.1.10 STRATIGRAPHY
-Stratigraphy is a branch of geology that involves the
study of rock layers or strata in the Earth's crust. It
focuses on understanding the sequence, composition,
and distribution of these layers to interpret the Earth's
geological history. Stratigraphy is crucial for
reconstructing past environments, events, and the
evolution of life on Earth.
 3.

EARTH
STRUCTURE AND
COMPOSITION
3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION

On the basis of relative position,

Density & Composition of Earth
summarize there are three
different types of layers of the
Earth. Which is identified the
structure of the Earth.
3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION

Three Layers of the

Earth
3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
Three Layers of the Earth

CRUST
1,400 miles
(2,250 km)
MANTLE
1,800 miles
OUTER CORE (2,900 km)
5 – 25 miles
(8 – 40 km)
INNER CORE
800 miles
(1,300 km)
 3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
Three Layers of the Earth
CRUST
CRUST
1,400 miles
(2,250 km)
Earth's crust is both the ou
and the thinnest ofMANTLE the
1,800 miles
layers, is composed mostly of
(2,900 km)
OUTER CORE
5 – 25 miles and silicon, and is where th
(8 – 40 km) ancient rock samples in the
have been found. It is also
INNER COREthe
of the earth. 800 miles
(1,300 km)
 3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
Three
TWOLayers of theOF
TYPES Earth
CRUST
1. Continental Crust is composed
CRUST
1,400 miles
of crystalline and granitic rocks
(2,250 km) mainly of silica and aluminum
MANTLE
and therefore also called 1,800SIALmiles
OUTER CORE layer. (2,900 km)
5 – 25 miles 2. Oceanic Crust the oceanic
(8 – 40 km) crust is mainly composed of
INNER CORE
basaltic igneous rocks, mainly of
800 miles
silica and magnesium(1,300 and
km)
 3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
Three Layers of the Earth
MANTLE
CRUST
1,400 miles
(2,250 km) Mantle are made of
MANTLE
rock or ices, and 1,800 miles
OUTER CORE are generally the (2,900 km)
5 – 25 miles largest and most
(8 – 40 km) massive layer of
INNER CORE
the planetary body.
800 miles
(1,300 km)
 3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
Three LayersMANTLE
of the Earth
1. Upper Mantle is a very thick
CRUST layer of rock inside the planet,
1,400 miles which begins just beneath the
(2,250 km)
crust. MANTLE
1,800 miles
2. Lower Mantle The lower mantle,
OUTER CORE (2,900 km)
historically also known as the
5 – 25 miles
(8 – 40 km) mesosphere, represents
approximately 56% of Earth's
INNERtotal
CORE
volume, and is the region from
800 660
miles
(1,300 km)
to 2900 km below Earth's surface,
 3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
Three LayersMANTLE
of the Earth

It can be subdivided into four

CRUST layers namely
1,400 miles
(2,250 km) 1. Lithosphere
MANTLE
2. Asthenosphere
1,800 miles
OUTER CORE
3. Upper Mantle (2,900 km)
5 – 25 miles 4. Lower Mantle
(8 – 40 km)
INNER CORE
800 miles
(1,300 km)
 3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
Three Layers of the Earth
CORE
Earth's core is the
CRUST very hot, very
1,400 miles
(2,250 km) dense center of our
MANTLE
planet. It is made
1,800 miles
OUTER CORE
mostly of Iron and
(2,900 km)
5 – 25 miles it has a magnetic
(8 – 40 km) field.
INNER CORE
800 miles
(1,300 km)
 3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
PARTS
ThreeOF CORE
Layers of the Earth
1. Outer Core is a hot and liquid
layer comprising mainly of nickel
CRUST
and liquid iron. The transition
1,400 miles
space between outer core and MANTLE
(2,250 km)
mantle is called Gutenberg 1,800 miles
OUTER CORE discontinuity. (2,900 km)
5 – 25 miles
(8 – 40 km)
2. Inner Core-is mostly made of
INNER CORE
solid iron and has little amounts
800 miles
of nickel. (1,300 km)
 3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
Three Layers of the Earth
The transition region between outer core and inner
core is called Lehmann discontinuity.
Earth'sCRUSTmagnetic field is believed to be controlled by
the1,400
liquid outer core. It is also believe to be the
miles
(2,250 km) force of Earth's rotation and electric
responsible MANTLE
currents. 1,800 miles
OceanCORE
OUTER the vast body of salt water that cover (2,900
almostkm)
5 – 25 miles
three fourth
(8 – 40 km)
of the earth surface.
Trenches- from when one tectonic plates slides
INNER CORE
beneath another plates at a subduction zone. 800 miles
(1,300 km)
 3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
3. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
Three Layers of the Earth
Hot spot a small area with relatively high
temperature in a comparison to its surrounding
Continent-
CRUST A continent is one of the earth
1,400 miles
seven main division of land.
(2,250 km)
Oceanic ridge- is an under water mountain MANTLE
system for med by tectonic plates. an Iceland1,800 miles
OUTER CORE (2,900 km)
are is a type of archipelago often composed of a
5 – 25 miles
(8 chain of volcanoes with are shaped alignment
– 40 km)
situated parallel and close to a boundaryINNER CORE
between two converging tectonic plates. 800 miles
(1,300 km)
 4.

ELEMENTARY
KNOWLEDGE
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's
land masses are in constant motion. The
realization that Earth's land masses move
was first proposed by Alfred Wegener, which
he called continental drift.
Trivia: The story begins with Alfred Wegener (1880–1930), a German
meteorologist and geophysicist who noticed something curious when
he looked at a map of the world. Wegener observed that the
continents of South America and Africa looked like they would fit
together remarkably well—take away the Atlantic Ocean and these
two massive landforms would lock neatly together. He also noted that
similar fossils were found on continents separated by oceans,
additional evidence that perhaps the landforms had once been joined.
He hypothesized that all of the modern-day continents had previously
been clumped together in a supercontinent he called Pangaea from
ancient Greek words "Pan" meaning entire, and "Gaia" meaning Earth.
Trivia: Wegener first presented his idea of continental
drift in 1912, but it was widely ridiculed and soon,
mostly, forgotten. Wegener never lived to see his theory
accepted—he died at the age of 50 while on an
expedition in Greenland
He suggests that continents were moving around due to
Earth rotation which turned out to be wrong. Secondly,
he was a meteorologist (studies weather), not a
geologist, so geologist didn't think he knew what he was
talking about.
FOSSIL EVIDENCE
One type of evidence that strongly supported the Theory of
Continental Drift is the fossil record. Scientists have found fossils of
similar types of plants and animals in rocks of similar age. These rocks
were on the shores of different continents. This suggests that the
continents were once joined.
According to the National Geographic Society,
Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that explains
how major landforms are created as a result of
Earth's subterranean movements. The theory,
which solidified in the 1960s, transformed the
earth sciences by explaining many phenomena,
including mountain-building events, volcanoes,
and earthquakes.
According to the book, Plate Tectonics, The
Theory of Plate Tectonics builds on Wegener’s
Theory of Continental Drift. In the Theory of Plate
Tectonics, it is tectonic plates, rather than
continents that are moving.
There are currently 7 major plates that make up
most of the continents and the Pacific Ocean They
are:
• African Plate
• Antarctic Plate
• Eurasian Plate
• Indo-Australian Plate
• North American Plate
• Pacific Plate
• South American Plate
African Plate
The African plate contains the whole continent of
Africa as well as the surrounding oceanic crust of
the Atlantic Ocean. Oddly, it looks like a larger
boundary of the African continent, itself.
Antarctic Plate
The Antarctic plate holds the entire continent of
Antarctica including its surrounding oceanic crust.
This plate is surrounded by parts of the African,
Australian, Pacific, and South American plates.
Eurasian Plate
The Eurasian major plate consists of most of
Europe, Russia, and parts of Asia. This plate is
sandwiched between the North American and
African Plates on the north and west sides.
The Indo-Australia plate is a major plate
combining the Australian and Indian Plates. But
they are widely considered to be two separate
plates.

The Indo-Australia plate stretches from Australia

to India. It also includes the oceanic crust of the
Indian Ocean. The northeast side of the Australian
plate converges with the Pacific Plate.
North American Plate
The North American major plate not only contains
the continent of North America but also part of
the Atlantic Ocean.
This plate extends all the way over the North Pole
and even contains Siberia and the northern island
of Japan. It also includes Greenland, Cuba, and the
Bahamas.
Pacific Plate
The Pacific major plate is the largest which
underlies the Pacific Ocean. Specifically, it
stretches all the way along the west coast of
North America to the east coast of Japan and
Indonesia.
South American Plate
The South American plate is a major plate that
includes the continent of South America and a
large portion of the ocean from the Atlantic
Ocean.
 4. ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE

There are also 8 minor tectonic plates:

• Arabian Plate.
• Caribbean Plate.
• Cocos Plate.
• Juan de Fuca Plate.
• Nazca Plate.
• Philippine Sea Plate.
• Scotia Plate.
 4. ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE

Tectonic Plates not only move land masses or

continental crust but also oceans or oceanic crust.
Since the plates are floating on the liquid rock,
they are constantly bumping against each other.
 4. ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE

Plate tectonics explains why Earth’s continents

are moving; the theory of continental drift did not
provide an explanation. Therefore, the theory of
plate tectonics is more complete. It has gained
widespread acceptance among scientists. This
shift from one theory to another is an example of
the scientific process: As more observations are
made and measurements are collected, scientists
revise their theories to be more accurate and
consistent with the natural world.
 5.

WEATHERING
5. WEATHERING

Weathering describes the breaking down or dissolving of

rocks and minerals on the surface of the Earth. Water,
ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and changes in
temperature are all agents of weathering.

Once a rock has been broken down, a process called

erosion transports the bits of rock and mineral away. No
rock on Earth is hard enough to resist the forces of
weathering and erosion
5. WEATHERING

There are three types of weathering

1. Physical also known as mechanical weathering or
disaggregation, is the process class that causes rocks to
disintegrate without chemical change. Abrasion (the
process by which clasts and other particles are
2. reduced in size) is the primary process in physical
weathering. Chemical changes rock composition, often
transforming them into different chemical reactions
when water interacts with minerals.
3. Biological-is the weakening and subsequent
breakdown by plants, animals and microbes of rock.
5. WEATHERING

5.2.1 GEOLOGICAL WORK BY RIVER

- Rivers play a significant role in shaping the Earth's
surface through various geological processes. The work
of rivers, often referred to as fluvial processes, involves
the erosion, transportation, and deposition of sediments,
contributing to the formation of landscapes and
geological features

-The geological work by river may be divided into three

1. Erosion
2. Transport
3. Deposition
5. WEATHERING

METHOD OF RIVER EROSION

- River erosion is a natural process by which rivers wear
away and remove rock, soil, and other materials from
their channels and surrounding areas. There are several
methods through which rivers erode the landscape
5. WEATHERING

RIVER VALLEYS
-River valleys are landforms created by the erosional
and depositional actions of rivers over time. These
valleys are typically characterized by a low-lying,
elongated depression or basin carved into the Earth's
surface by the flowing water. River valleys can vary
widely in size, shape, and topography, influenced by
factors such as the type of rock, climate, and tectonic
activity.
5. WEATHERING

WATERFALLS
-Waterfalls are natural geological features where water
descends from a higher elevation to a lower elevation
over a vertical or near-vertical drop. They are often
formed as rivers or streams flow over resistant rock
formations and erode the underlying softer rock,
creating a sudden change in elevation. Waterfalls can
vary in size, shape, and appearance, and they are found
in diverse landscapes around the world.
5. WEATHERING

TRANSPORT BY RIVERS
-Transport in a river refers to the movement of
sediments, particles, and dissolved materials within the
river channel. Rivers are dynamic systems that
continuously transport and redistribute materials,
influencing the landscape and ecosystems they traverse
5. WEATHERING

DEPOSITION BY RIVERS
- Deposition by rivers refers to the process by which
sediments, particles, and other materials carried by
flowing water are deposited or settled in a particular
location. Deposition is a natural and integral part of the
river's erosional and sedimentary cycle.
5. WEATHERING

Geological Works of Oceans

Marine water covers two-thirds of Earth's
surface, making it a potent geological agent. Marine
geology is rapidly becoming its own branch of geology.

Marine Erosion
Using hydraulic action, abrasion, and corrosion,
marine water erodes shorelines and other rocks in a
similar way as stream water.
5. WEATHERING

Hydraulic Action
It is the process of loose, fragmented rock blocks being
broken, loosened, and plucked out of their original
locations by the powerful pressures produced by the
impact of sea waves and currents.
Marine Abrasion
This involves the grinding and rubbing of
seawater on the rocks of the shore with the help of sand
particles and other small fragments are hurdled up again
these rocks.
5. WEATHERING

Corrosion
It is the solvent action of seawater which is
particularly strong in environment where the shore is
vulnerable of chemical composition.
 6.

ORIGIN,
OCCURRENCE OF
EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake is a rapid movement of geological
elements under the earth's surface that causes a
weak to intense shaking of the ground. The
earthquakes originate in the tectonic plate
boundary.
Focus - is the point inside the earth where the
earthquake started, sometimes called the
hypocenter, Epicenter - the point on the surface of
the earth directly above the focus.
Magnitude - is proportional to the energy released
by an earthquake at the focus. It is calculated
from earthquakes recorded by an instrument
called seismograph and is represented by Arabic
Numbers

Intensity - is the strength of an earthquake as

perceived and felt by people in a certain locality
The largest, main earthquake is called the
mainshock. Mainshocks always have foreshocks
that follow. These are smaller earthquakes that
occur afterwards in the same place as the
mainshock. Depending on the size of the
mainshock, aftershocks can continue for weeks,
months, and even years after the mainshock.
 7.

MODE OF
OCCURRENCE OF
EARTHQUAKE
Most earthquakes occur along tectonic plate
boundaries, along cracks in the lithosphere called
faults, or along the mid-oceanic ridges but the
majority of the seismic energy released in the
world is from earthquakes occurring along the
plate boundaries, particularly around the Pacific
Rim or the so-called Ring of Fire where there is a
particularly intense tectonic activity that causes
Tsunamis on a regular basis.
What is an earthquake and what causes them to
happen? An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip
on a fault. The tectonic plates are always slowly
moving, but they get stuck at their edges due to
friction. When the stress on the edge overcomes
the friction, there is an earthquake that releases
energy in waves that travel through the earth's
crust and cause the shaking that we feel.
1. Induced Earthquakes
When caused by humans, seismic activity (also
called earthquake activity) is known as induced
seismicity. Induced seismicity is associated with
industrial processes including geothermal energy
extraction, mining, dam building, construction,
and hydraulic fracturing.
2. Volcanic Earthquakes
3. Collapse Earthquake
 7.

PROSPECTING
- Prospecting is the first stage of geological
analysis (followed by exploration)of territory. It is
the search for minerals, fossils, precious metals,
or mineral specimen. It is also known as
fossicking.
-Traditionally prospecting relied on direct
observation of mineralization in rock outcrops or
in sediments. Modern prospecting also includes
the use of geologic, geophysical, and geochemical
tools to search for anomalies which can narrow
the search area.
 8.

GROUND WATER
Groundwater is the water found underground in
the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock. It is
stored in and moves slowly through geologic
formations of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers.
Aquifers are typically made up of gravel, sand,
sandstone, or fractured rock, like limestone.
Water can move through these materials because
they have large connected spaces that make them
permeable. The speed at which groundwater flows
depends on the size of the spaces in the soil or
rock and how well the spaces are connected.
HOW MUCH DO WE DEPEND ON GROUNDWATER?
1. Groundwater supplies drinking water for 51% of
the total U.S. population and 99% of the rural
population.
2. 2. Groundwater helps grow our food. 64% of
groundwater is used for irrigation to grow
crops.
3. Groundwater is an important component in
many industrial processes.
 9.

IMPORTANCE OF
GEOLOGY IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING
. THE IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGY IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING
What do engineers have to do with geology?
One of the most important task as a civil engineer needs
to complete is site surveying. Surveying requires civil
engineers to determine the relative positions of points
that are at, above, and below the surface of the earth.
This requires geological surveying tools and skills.
Role of knowledge of Geology in Civil Engineering
Geology play a very important role in the field of civil
engineering. Some applications of the knowledge of the
geology are given below:
• It provides knowledge about materials used for
construction.
• It’s knowledge is helpful for river control and shipping.
• It’s knowledge is helpful for constructing.
• Geotechnical engineers needs knowledge about this
subject for digging works.
Role of knowledge of Geology in Civil Engineering
Geology play a very important role in the field of civil
engineering. Some applications of the knowledge of the
geology are given below:
• It provides knowledge about materials used for
construction.
• It’s knowledge is helpful for river control and shipping.
• It’s knowledge is helpful for constructing.
• Geotechnical engineers needs knowledge about this
subject for digging works.
• It’s knowledge is required for foundation faults.
• For design of highways and roads.
• In construction of tunnels.
• Soils tests re done before any project.
• Economical design is advance.
• Nature od soil materials can be find out.
THANK YOU !!