IIT TIPS
TIP 1 & 30
STRUCTURES
SEM 4
A002 JYOTIRANJAN BEHERA B001 ANOUSHKA MAJITHIA
TIP 1
What causes earthquakes?
UNDERSTANDING THE LAYERS OF EARTH
During the formation of Earth, fusion generated a significant amount of heat
heavier, denser materials sank towards the center during cooling.
lighter materials rose to the top, resulting in distinct layers.
Inner Core:
● Solid composition with heavy metals (nickel and iron).
Outer Core:
● Liquid form.
Mantle:
● Ability to flow.
Crust:
● Composed of light materials such as basalts and granites.
Tectonic Plates
The convective flows of Mantle material cause the Crust and some portion of the Mantle, to slide
on the hot molten outer core. This sliding of Earth’s mass takes place in pieces called Tectonic
Plates. They are large pieces of the Earth's lithosphere earthquakes are primarily associated with
the interactions and movements of these plates.Most earthquakes occur at plate boundaries,
where tectonic plates interact.
Divergent Convergent Transform
Divergent Convergent Transform
● Tectonic plates ● Tectonic plates ● Tectonic plates slide
move away from move toward each past each other
each other. other. horizontally.
● Magma rises from ● Subduction zones ● The friction between
the mantle to fill the occur when one sliding plates can
gap, creating new plate is forced cause stress to build
crust. beneath another. up until it is
● As the crust forms, ● The intense suddenly released,
earthquakes may pressure and heat resulting in
occur due to the generated in earthquakes.
adjustment of rocks subduction zones ● The San Andreas
to the new stress can lead to the Fault in California is
conditions. release of energy, an example of a
causing transform boundary
earthquakes. where frequent
● Collisions between earthquakes occur.
plates at convergent
boundaries can also
result in seismic
CIRCULATION
● Convection currents develop in the viscous Mantle, because of prevailing
high temperature and pressure gradients between the Crust and the
Core, like the convective flow of water when heated in a beaker.
● The energy for the above circulations is derived from the heat produced
from the incessant decay of radioactive elements in the rocks throughout
the Earth’s interior.
● These convection currents result in a circulation of the earth’s mass; hot
molten lava comes out and the cold rock mass goes into the Earth.
● The mass absorbed eventually melts under high temperature and
pressure and becomes a part of the Mantle, only to come out again from
another location, someday.
● Many such local circulations are taking place at different regions
underneath the Earth’s surface, leading to different portions of the Earth
undergoing different directions of movements along the surface.
CIRCULATION
● Tectonic plates are made of elastic but brittle rocky material.
● And so, elastic strain energy is stored in them during the
relative deformations that occur due to the gigantic tectonic
plate actions taking place in the Earth.
● But, when the rocky material along the interface of the
plates in the Earth’s Crust reaches its strength, it fractures
and a sudden movement takes place there
● The interface between the plates where the movement has
taken place (called the fault) suddenly slips and releases the
large elastic strain energy stored in the rocks at the
interface.
● For example, the energy released during the 2001 Bhuj
(India) earthquake is about 400 times (or more) that
released by the 1945 Atom Bomb dropped on Hiroshima
Elastic Rebound Theory
● The sudden slip at the fault causes the
earthquake, a violent shaking of the Earth
during which large elastic strain energy
released spreads out in the form of seismic
waves that travel through the body and along
the surface of the Earth.
● Elastic strain energy refers to the
potential energy stored in the Earth's
crust as it undergoes elastic
deformation due to tectonic forces.
Earthquakes are caused by the sudden
release of this stored elastic strain
energy when the stress on a fault
exceeds the strength of the rocks
holding it together. The elastic strain
energy is accumulated over time as
tectonic plates interact and deform.
● After the earthquake is over, the process of strain build-up at this modified interface between the
tectonic plates starts all over again .
● Earth scientists know this as the Elastic Rebound Theory.
● The collection of material points at the fault over which slip occurs usually constitutes an oblong three-
dimensional volume, with its long dimension often running into tens of kilometers in case of significant
earthquakes
Types of earthquakes
They occur at the boundaries between tectonic plates and are
caused by plate movements, like plates colliding, sliding past each
Inter-plate earthquakes: other, or moving apart.
Example: Earthquakes at the boundary between the Indian and
Eurasian plates.
They occur within the interior of tectonic plates, away from plate
boundaries and are caused by Internal stresses, reactivation of
ancient faults. Intra-plate earthquakes:
Example: New Madrid seismic zone in the central United States.
Faults
Dip-Slip Fault Earthquakes:
● Vertical movement (up or down) along
the fault plane.
● Types: Normal Fault (hanging wall down),
Reverse Fault (hanging wall up).
● Example: Sierra Nevada Mountains
(Normal Fault), Himalayas (Reverse
Fault).
Strike-Slip Fault Earthquakes:
● Horizontal movement along the fault
plane.
● Types: Right-Lateral (opposite side moves
right), Left-Lateral (opposite side moves
left).
● Example: San Andreas Fault (Right-
Lateral).
● The 2001 Gujarat earthquake, also known as the Bhuj earthquake, occurred on 26 January at
08:46 am IST. The epicentre was about 9 km south-southwest of the village of Chobari in Bhachau
Taluka of Kutch (Kachchh) District of Gujarat, India.
● The intraplate earthquake measured 7.6 on the moment magnitude scale and occurred at 17.4
km (10.8 mi) depth. It had a maximum felt intensity of X (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity
scale.
Epicenter and Fault Zone:
● The epicenter of the 2001 Gujarat earthquake was near the town of Bhuj.
● The earthquake was associated with movement along a fault line called the "Rann of Kachchh" fault.
The earthquake resulted from the release of accumulated stress along the fault line, cause Poorly
constructed buildings and infrastructure were susceptible to damage and collapsing significant ground
shaking.
In summary, the 2001 Gujarat earthquakes were primarily caused by tectonic forces associated
with the convergence of the Indian and Eurasian plates. The release of accumulated stress
along the fault line in the Rann of Kachchh region led to the seismic events. The impact was
further magnified by the region's population density and vulnerabilities in building
construction.
BHUNGA
Bhungas are traditional houses unique to the Kutch region in Gujarat.
The houses are circular walled with thatched roof. They are known for
their structural stability in earthquakes and for being climate
responsive. It also protects against sandstorms and cyclonic winds.
It is constructed using locally available materials like clay, bamboo,
timber, etc. Structurally the roof is placed on two thick wooden posts
placed across the circular walls. These two posts bear the weight of the
roof. Wooden framed windows are set at a lower level for cross
ventilation. The low hanging roofs cover the walls against direct sunlight
and add to the insulation from the environment. The thatched roof is built
on top of the walls resting on a spiral frame forming a cone.
TIP 30
What is important in earthquake resistant buildings?
The site of a building should be free
from any collateral damage due to
earthquake-related effects.
Ideal sites are:
Earthquake a) Free from detrimental earthquake actions in the ground,
like liquefaction, settlement and lateral spreading
s b) Away from a fault rupture zone
Fire Beyond the forest or wooded areas with
potential fire hazard arising from earthquakes
hazards
Above the level of inundation under
Tsunami tsunami waves generated in the adjoining
ocean by earthquakes
● Even if the site is devoid of the above, steep slopes or
vertical cuts in natural hills (otherwise safe under
other loads acting on them) can slide during
earthquakes
● Vulnerable soil embankments can slide or spread
laterally due to liquefaction. Other earthquake hazards
at hill slope sites include rolling stones and debris.
● When the ground shakes underneath buildings with
elongated plan or long span structures (e.g.,
suspension bridges), the motion at different supports
may not be synchronous.
● Differential shaking of such structures at their supports
induces additional effects, and should be accounted for
in their design
● Even if local soil stratum underneath a proposed
structure is stable, ground shaking may be modified
when earthquake waves propagate through the soil
overlying rock layers; this phenomenon is referred to
as Site Effect.
● Even when shaking at the base rock is moderate,
the motion at a site may be amplified by soil above
rock, and this needs to be accounted for in design.
● Site effect was noticed first in the 1819 Kutch
earthquake in India.
● It was very prominent in 1985 earthquake that
affected Mexico City; ground response was amplified
by up to 7-8 times at building sites located on lake
bed (which was akin to a bowl of jelly) in contrast to
those located on hard rock in Mexico City
● No structure can perform well, if it does not
have a good foundation supported on strata
that is stable during earthquakes.
● All principles applicable in foundation design
of structures subjected to gravity loads, are
applicable in foundation design of
earthquake-resistant structures also.
● Concepts of foundation engineering, like
Bearing Capacity and Settlement Criteria,
are relevant to earthquake-resistant buildings
also.
● Thorough geotechnical investigations at the
site are a must for most design projects.
● In addition to traditional Standard and Cone
Penetration Tests, other in-situ tests (e.g.,
Shear Wave Velocity Test and Pressure-
meter Test) may be performed
● Depending on geotechnical conditions,
structural configuration and loads, a
suitable type of foundation must be chosen.
● If soil type is hard, isolated footings may
suffice under individual columns.
● But, these foundations must be tied to
each other with beams at top of footings or
within the footing depth to resist relative
movement between column bases .
● On the other hand, if soil underneath is
soft, other foundation types may become
necessary, e.g., raft or pile foundations.
● If the site is susceptible to liquefaction, either ground
improvement must be undertaken or the foundation
must be carefully designed, such that it can carry the
load even after the vulnerable soil layers have
liquefied .
● For instance, in case of pile and well foundations,
layers susceptible to liquefaction should be neglected
in estimating stiffness and strength of the soil system.
● In case of lateral spreading, investigations beyond the
property boundaries (lines) of the building under
consideration may become necessary, especially in
when plots are small.
● Also, lateral thrust offered by liquefied soil layers must
be included in estimating force demands on
foundations.
● It is difficult to inspect and repair foundations
after a severe earthquake.
● Further, damage to foundation can be
detrimental to the stability of the structure.
Hence, in seismic design, column damage in
columns is preferred over foundation damage
during strong shaking.
● This is achieved by adopting Capacity Design
Concept ; the foundation system needs to be
designed for loads higher than the ultimate
flexural capacity of columns or of structural
walls.
● A base isolation system is a method of seismic protection
where the structure (superstructure) is separated from the
base (foundation or substructure).
● By separating the structure from its base the amount of
energy that is transferred to the superstructure during an
earthquake is reduced significantly.
● These base isolation systems often tend to include one or
more type of bearing to support the weight of the structure.
● Some examples of these components are; elastomeric pads,
sliding plates or inverted pendulums. All of these components
can provide some level of energy dissipation, but typically
only in the form of hysteretic damping.
● Hysteretic damping has certain limitations in terms of energy
absorption and can excite higher modes in some cases.
