ELECTRICAL
MACHINES – II
(AC
MACHINES)
Syllabus
Electrical Machines -II
BASICS OF
ELECTRICAL
MACHINES
Electrical
Machine?
Electrical machine is a device which
can convert
Mechanical energy into
electrical energy
(Generators/alternators)
Electrical energy into mechanical
energy (Motors)
A C current from one voltage level to
other voltage level without changing its
frequency (Transformers)
Presented by C.GOKUL,AP/EEE Velalar College of Engg & Tech , Erode
Fundamental Principle..
Electrical Machines
(irrespective of AC or DC) work
on the fundamental principle of
Faraday’s law of
Electromagnetic Induction.
Faraday’s Law
Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic Induction states
that an EMF is induced in a coil
when the magnetic flux linking
this coil changes with time
or
The EMF generated is
proportional to the rate at which
flux is changed.
Faraday’s Law – Illustration
Two forms of Induced
EMF !
The effect is same if the magnet
is moved and the coil is made
stationery
We call it as statically induced
EMF
The previous case is referred to
as
Dynamically induced EMF
Governing Rules
Itbecomes evident that there exists
a relationship between mechanical
energy, electrical energy and
magnetic field.
These three can be combined and
precisely put as governing rules each
for generator and for motor
Fleming’s Right hand rule
For
Generator
Fleming's Right hand rule(for
Generator)
Fleming’s Left hand rule
For
Motor
Fleming's left hand rule (for
motors)
First finger - direction of magnetic field
(N-S)
Second finger - direction of
current (positive to negative)
Thumb - movements of the
wire
Maxwell’s Corkscrew rule
Ifthe electric current is moving away
from the observer, the direction of lines
of force of the magnetic field
surrounding the conductor is clockwise
and that if the electric current is
moving towards an observer, the
direction of lines of force is anti-
clockwise
Corkscrew (Screw driver) rule -
Illustration
Coiling of Conductor
To augment the effect of flux, we coil the
conductor as the flux lines aid each other
when they are in the same direction and
cancel each other when they are in the
opposite direction
Many a times, conductor is coiled around a
magnetic material as surrounding air weakens
the flux
We refer the magnetic
material as armature core
Electromagnet
Themagnetic property of current
carrying conductor can be exploited to
make the conductor act as a magnet –
Electromagnet
This is useful because it is very
difficult to find permanent magnets
with such high field
Also permanent magnets are prone to
AC Fundamentals
AC Fundamentals - continued
Whenever current passes through
a conductor…
Opposition to flow of current
Opposition to sudden change in
current
Opposition to sudden change in
voltage
Flux lines around the conductor
Inductive Effect
Reactance EMF
Lenz Law
An induced current is always in such a
direction as to oppose the motion or
change causing it
Capacitive effect
Q
C V
q ( t ) 1
V (t )
i(t )dt
C C
dq(t )
i(t ) C
dv(t )
Resistive Network – Vector diagram
Inductive Network – Vector Diagram
Capacitive Network – Vector Diagram
Inductive & Capacitive effects -
combined
Pure L & C networks – not at all
possible!
R-L
network
Pure L & C networks – not at all
possible! – contd.
R-C
network
Current & Flux
As already mentioned,
As the current, so the flux
3 phase AC
Star and Delta
Star connection
V 3V
L
ph
IL I ph
Delta Connection
V V
L
ph
IL
3I ph
Maxwell's Right Hand
Grip Rule
Right Handed Cork
Screw Rule
Generators
The Generator converts mechanical
power into electrical power.
Synchronous generators
(Alternator) are constant speed
generators.
The conversion of mechanical power into
electrical power is done through a
coupling field (magnetic field).
Input Magneti Electric Output
Mechanic
c al
al
Electric
Mechanic
Generator Electric
al Energy
G al
Energy
Stationary magnets - rotating magnets - electromagnets
Motor
The Motor converts electrical
power into mechanical power.
M
Electric Mechanic
al al Energy
Energy
Input Magneti Output
Mechanic
Electric c
al
al
Basic Construction
Parts
Stationary Part
Stato Armature
r
Mechanical Electrical
Field
Roto
r
Rotating
Part
AC MACHINES
Two
categories:
1.Synchronous
Machines:
Synchronous
Generators(Alternator)
Primary Source of
Electrical Energy
Synchronous Motor
2.Asynchronous
Machines(Induction
UNIT-1
SYNCHRON
OUS
GENERATO
R
UNIT-1 Syllabus
Synchronous Generators
Generator
Exciter
View of a two-pole round rotor generator and
exciter.
(Westinghouse)
Synchronous Machines
• Synchronous generators or alternators are used to convert
mechanical power derived from steam, gas, or hydraulic-turbine
to ac electric power
• Synchronous generators are the primary source of electrical
energy we consume today
• Large ac power networks rely almost exclusively on synchronous
generators
• Synchronous motors are built in large units compare to induction
motors (Induction motors are cheaper for smaller ratings) and
used for constant speed industrial drives
Construction
Basic parts of a synchronous generator:
• Rotor - dc excited winding
• Stator - 3-phase winding in which the ac emf is generated
The manner in which the active parts of a synchronous machine
are cooled determines its overall physical size and structure
Armature Windings (On Stator)
• Armature windings connected are 3-phase
and are either star or delta connected
• It is the stationary part of the machine and is built
up of sheet-steel laminations having slots on its
inner periphery.
• The windings are 120 degrees apart and
normally use distributed windings
Field Windings (on Rotor)
• The field winding of a synchronous machine is
always energized with direct current
• Under steady state condition, the field or
exciting current is given
Ir = Vf/Rf
Vf = Direct voltage applied to the field
winding Rf= Field winding Resistance
Rotor
• Rotor is the rotating part of the machine
• Can be classified as: (a) Cylindrical Rotor and (b)
Salient Pole rotor
• Large salient-pole rotors are made of laminated
poles retaining the winding under the pole head.
Various Types of ROTOR
Salient-pole Rotor
Cylindrical or round rotor
a. Salient-Pole Rotor
1. Most hydraulic turbines have to turn at low speeds
(between 50 and 300 r/min)
2. A large number of poles are required on the rotor
d-axis
N Non-uniform
air-gap
D 10 m
q-axis S S
Turbin
e N
Hydro (water)
Hydrogenerator
• Salient pole type rotor is used in low and
medium speed alternators
• This type of rotor consists of large number of
projected poles (called salient poles)
• Poles are also laminated to minimize the eddy
current losses.
• This type of rotor are large in diameters
and short in axial length.
Salient-Pole Synchronous Generator
Stator
b. Cylindrical-Rotor(Non-Salient Pole)
Turbine D1
m
L 10
Steam m d-axis
Stator
winding
High speed N
Uniform
3600 r/min -pole air- gap
Stat
1800 r/min -pole or
q-axis Roto
Direct-conductor cooling r
(using
hydrogen or water as wind
Rot
coolant) ing
or
S
Rating up to 2000
MVA
Turbogenerator
• Cylindrical type rotors are used in
high speed alternators (turbo
alternators)
• This type of rotor consists of a
smooth and solid steel cylinder
having slots along its outer
periphery.
• Field windings are placed in these
slots.
Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous Generator
Stator
Cylindrical rotor
Working of Alternator &
frequency of Induced EMF
Working
• Principle
It works on the principle of Electromagnetic induction
• In the synchronous generator field system is rotating and
armature winding is steady.
• Its works on principle opposite to the DC generator
• High voltage AC output coming from the armature
terminal
Working Principle
• Armature
Stator
• Field Rotor
• No commutator is
required {No need
for commutator
because we need
AC only}
Frequency of Induced EMF
Every time a complete pair of poles crosses the conductor, the
induced voltage goes through one complete cycle. Therefore, the
generator frequency is given by
p n pn
f .
2
60
120
N=Rotor speed in r.p.m
Advantages of
stationary
• armature
At high voltages, it easier to insulate
stationary armature winding(30 kV or
more)
• The high voltage output can be
directly taken out from the
stationary armature.
• Rotor is Field winding. So low dc
voltage can be transferred safely
• Due to simple construction High
speed of Rotating DC field is
Presented by C.GOKUL,AP/EEE Velalar College of Engg & Tech , Erode
Winding
Factors( K , p
Kd)
K p c o s
2
m
s i n
2
K
d
m s i n
2
Pitch factor (Kp)
Consider 4 pole, 3 phase machine
having 24 conductors
Pole pitch = 24 / 4 = 6 slots
If Coil Pitch or Coil Span = pole pitch,
then it is referred to as full-pitched
winding
If Coil Pitch < pole pitch, it is referred to
as
short-pitched winding
Coil Span = 5 / 6 of pole
pitch
If falls short by 1 / 6 of pole
pitch or
180 / 6 = 30 degrees
This is done primarily to
Save copper of end connections
Improve the wave-form of the
generated emf (sine wave)
Eliminate the high frequency
harmonics
There is a disadvantage attached to it
Total voltage around the coil gets
reduced because, the emf induced in
the two sides of the coil is slightly out
of phase
Due to that, their resultant vectorial sum
is less than the arithmetic sum
Pitch factor – Kp
Vectorsum
Kp
Arithmaticsum
Pitch factor – contd.
Arithmatic
sum
Pitch factor – contd.
Vector
sum
Pitch factor – contd.
Pitch factor – contd.
Ve c t o r _ s u m
K p
A r i t h m a t i c _ s u m
2 E
c o s 2
s
2 E s
c o s
2
Pitch factor - Problem
Distribution factor (Kd)
As we know, each phase consists of
conductors distributed in number of
slots to form polar groups under each
pole
The result is that the emf induced in
the conductors constituting the polar
group are not in phase rather differ
by an angle equal to angular
displacement of the slots
For a 3 phase machine with 36 conductors, 4
pole, no. of slots (conductors) / pole / phase
is equal to 3
Each phase consists of 3 slots
Angular displacement between any two
adjacent slots = 180 / 9 = 20 degrees
If the 3 coils are bunched in 1 slot, emf
induced is equal to the arithmetic sum
(3Es)
Practically, in distributed winding, vector
sum has to be calculated
Kd = Vector sum / Arithmetic sum
emf _ with _ distributed _
K d emf _ with _ concentrated _
winding
winding
0
180 0
180
no.of _ slots _ per _ pole
n
For
calculating Vector
sum
2 r s i n m
2
K
d
m 2 r s i n
2
s i n m
2
K
d
m s i n
2
Problem:
Distribution factor /Breadth factor
EMF Equation
of Alternator
Equation of Induced EMF
Average emf induced per conductor =
d / dt Here, d = P
If P is number of poles and flux / pole is
Weber
dt = time for N revolution = 60 / N
second Therefore,
Average emf = d / dt = P / (60 / N)
NP
Equation of Induced EMF – contd.
We know,
N = 120 f / P
Substituting, N we
get
Avg. emf per
conductor = 2 f
Volt
If there are Z conductors / ph,
then Avg. emf induced / ph = 2 f
Equation of Induced EMF – contd.
We know, RMS value / Avg. Value = 1.11
Therefore,
RMS value of emf induced / ph =
1.11 (4 f T) V
= 4.44 f T
Volt
This is the actual value, but we have
two other factors coming in the picture,
RMS value of emf induced = (Kd) (Kc) Vol
Kc and Kd
4.44 f T t
These two reduces the emf induced
Armature
Reaction of
Alternator
Armature Reaction
Main Flux Field Winding
Secondary Armature
Flux
Effect of ArmatureWinding
Flux on the Main
Flux is called Armature Reaction
Armature Reaction in alternator
I) When load p.f. is unity
II) When load p.f. is zero
lagging
III) When load p.f. is zero
leading
Armature Reaction in alternator
I) When load p.f. is unity
distorted but not weakened.- the average
flux in the air-gap practically remains
unaltered.
II) When load p.f. is zero lagging
the flux in the air-gap is weakened- the field
excitation will have to be increased to
compensate
III.) When load p.f. is zero leading
the effect of armature reaction is wholly
magnetizing- the field excitation will
have to be reduced
1. Unity Power Factor Load
Consider a purely resistive load connected
to the alternator, having unity power
factor. As induced
e.m.f. Eph drives a current of Iaph and load
power factor is unity, Eph and Iph are in
phase
If Φf with each
is the other.
main flux produced by the field
winding responsible for producing Eph then
Eph lags Φf by 90o .
Now current through armature Ia,
produces the armature flux say Φa. So flux Φa
and Ia are always in the same direction.
•Phase difference of 90o between the armature flux and the main
flux
•the two fluxes oppose each other on the left half of each pole
while assist each other on the right half of each pole.
•Average flux in the air gap remains constant but its
distribution gets distorted.
•Due to such distortion of the flux, there is small drop in the
terminal voltage
2. Zero Lagging Power Factor
Load
Consider a purely inductive load connected
to the alternator, having zero lagging
power factor.
Iaph driven by Eph lags Eph by 90o which is the
power
factor angle Φ.
Induced e.m.f. Eph lags main flux Φf by 90o
while
Φa is in the same direction as that of
Ia.
the armature flux and the main flux are
•As this effect causes reduction in the main flux, the
terminal voltage drops. This drop in the terminal voltage is
more than the drop corresponding to the unity p.f. load.
3. Zero Leading Power Factor
Load
Consider a purely capacitive load connected
to the alternator having zero leading power
factor.
This means that armature current Iaph driven
by Eph, leads Eph by 90o, which is the power
factor angle Φ.
Induced e.m.f. Eph lags Φf by 90o while Iaph and
Φa are always in the same direction.
the armature flux and the main field flux
are in the same direction
•As this effect adds the flux to the main flux,
greater
e.m.f. gets induced in the armature. Hence there
is increase in the terminal voltage for leading
power factor loads.
Phasor
Diagram for
Synchronous
Generator/Alter
nator
Phasor Diagram of loaded
Alternator
Ef which denotes excitation voltage
Vt which denotes terminal voltage
Ia which denotes the armature current
θ which denotes the phase angle between Vt and Ia
ᴪ which denotes the angle between the Ef and Ia
δ which denotes the angle between the Ef and Vt
ra which denotes the armature per phase
resistance Two important points:
(1)If a machine is working as a synchronous
generator then direction of Ia will be in
phase to that of the Ef.
(2)Phasor E is always ahead of V .
Lagging PF Unity PF Leading PF
a. Alternator at Lagging PF
Ef by first taking the component of the Vt
in the direction of Ia
Component of Vt in the direction of Ia is
Vtcosθ , Total voltage drop is (Vtcosθ+Iara)
along the Ia.
we can calculate the voltage drop along the
direction perpendicular to Ia.
The total voltage drop perpendicular to Ia is
(Vtsinθ+IaXs).
With the help of triangle BOD in the first
phasor diagram we can write the
expression for Ef as
b. Alternator at Unity PF
Efby first taking the component of
the Vt in the direction of Ia.
θ = 0 hence we have ᴪ=δ.
With the help of triangle BOD in the
second phasor diagram we can
directly write the expression for Ef as
c. Alternator at Leading PF
Component in the direction of Ia is Vtcosθ.
As the direction of Ia is same to that of the
Vt thus the total voltage drop is (Vtcosθ+Iara).
Similarly we can write expression for the
voltage drop along the direction
perpendicular to Ia.
The total voltage drop comes out to be
(Vtsinθ-IaXs).
With the help of triangle BOD in the
first phasor diagram we can write the
expression for Ef as
Determination of the parameters of
the equivalent circuit from test data
The equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator
that has been derived contains three quantities that
must be determined in order to completely
describe the behaviour of a real synchronous
generator:
The saturation characteristic: relationship between
If and (and therefore between If and Ef)
The synchronous reactance, Xs
The armature resistance, Ra
