Artificial Intelligence

Introduction

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 Why Study AI?
• AI makes computers more useful
• Intelligent computer would have huge impact
on civilization
• AI cited as “field I would most like to be in” by
scientists in all fields
• Computer is a good metaphor for talking and
thinking about intelligence

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 Why Study AI?
• Turning theory into working programs forces
us to work out the details
• AI yields good results for Computer Science
• AI yields good results for other fields
• Computers make good experimental subjects
• Personal motivation: mystery

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What is the definition of AI?

What do you think?

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 What is the definition of AI?
Systems that think like Systems that think rationally
humans ‫منطقيا‬
Systems that act like humans Systems that act rationally

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 What is the definition of AI?
Systems that think like Systems that think rationally
humans
Systems that act like humans Systems that act rationally

Bellman, 1978
“[The automation of] activities that we associate with
human thinking, activities such as decision making, problem
solving, learning”

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 What is the definition of AI?
Systems that think like Systems that think rationally
humans
Systems that act like humans Systems that act rationally

Charniak & McDermott, 1985

“The study of mental faculties ‫القدرات العقلية‬through the use
of computational models”

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 What is the definition of AI?
Systems that think like Systems that think rationally
humans
Systems that act like humans Systems that act rationally

Dean et al., 1995

“The design and study of computer programs that behave
intelligently. These programs are constructed to perform
as would a human or an animal whose behavior we
consider intelligent”
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 What is the definition of AI?
Systems that think like Systems that think rationally
humans
Systems that act like humans Systems that act rationally

Haugeland, 1985
“The exciting new effort to make computers think
machines with minds, in the full and literal sense”

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 What is the definition of AI?
Systems that think like Systems that think rationally
humans
Systems that act like humans Systems that act rationally

Kurzweil, 1990
“The art of creating machines that perform functions that
require intelligence when performed by people”

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 What is the definition of AI?
Systems that think like Systems that think rationally
humans
Systems that act like humans Systems that act rationally

Luger & Stubblefield, 1993

“The branch of computer science that is concerned with
the automation of intelligent behavior”

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 What is the definition of AI?
Systems that think like Systems that think rationally
humans
Systems that act like humans Systems that act rationally

Nilsson, 1998
“Many human mental activities such as writing computer
programs, doing mathematics, engaging in common sense
reasoning, understanding language, and even driving an
automobile, are said to demand intelligence. We might
say that [these systems] exhibit ‫يعرض‬artificial
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intelligence”
 What is the definition of AI?
Systems that think like Systems that think rationally
humans
Systems that act like humans Systems that act rationally

Rich & Knight, 1991

“The study of how to make computers do things at which,
at the moment, people are better”

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 What is the definition of AI?
Systems that think like Systems that think rationally
humans
Systems that act like humans Systems that act rationally

Schalkoff, 1990
“A field of study that seeks to explain and emulate
intelligent behavior in terms of computational processes”

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 What is the definition of AI?
Systems that think like Systems that think rationally
humans
Systems that act like humans Systems that act rationally

Winston, 1992
“The study of the computations that make it possible to perceive,
reason, and act”

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 Approach 1: Acting Humanly
• Turing ‫تقليد‬test: ultimate test for acting humanly
– Computer and human both interrogated ‫استجواب‬by judge
– Computer passes test if judge can’t tell the difference

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 How effective is this test?
• Agent must:
– Have command of language
– Have wide range of knowledge
– Demonstrate human traits‫( سمات شخصية‬humor
‫مزاح‬, emotion)
– Be able to reason
– Be able to learn
• Loebner prize competition is modern version of
Turing Test
– Example: Alice, Loebner prize winner
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 Approach 2: Thinking Humanly
• Requires knowledge of brain function
• What level of abstraction?
• How can we validate this
• This is the focus of Cognitive Science ‫علوم‬
‫ذهنية‬

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 Approach 3: Thinking Rationally
• Aristotle attempted this
• What are correct arguments or thought
processes?
• Provided foundation of much of AI
• Not all intelligent behavior controlled by logic
– What is our goal? What is the purpose of
thinking?

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 Approach 4: Acting Rationally
• Act to achieve goals, given set of beliefs
• Rational behavior is doing the “right thing”
– Thing which expects to maximize goal
achievement
• This is approach adopted by Russell & Norvig

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 AI Questions
• Can we make something that is as intelligent as a human?
• Can we make something that is as intelligent as a bee?
• Can we make something that is evolutionary, self
improving, autonomous, and flexible?
• Can we save this plant $20M/year by pattern recognition?
• Can we save this bank $50M/year by automatic fraud
detection?
• Can we start a new industry of handwriting recognition
agents?
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 Which of these exhibits intelligence?
• You beat somebody at chess.
• You prove a mathematical theorem using a set of known axioms.
• You need to buy some supplies, meet three different colleagues,
return books to the library, and exercise. You plan your day in such a
way that everything is achieved in an efficient manner.
• You are a lawyer who is asked to defend someone. You recall three
similar cases in which the defendant was guilty, and you turn down
the potential client.
• A stranger passing you on the street notices your watch and asks,
“Can you tell me the time?” You say, “It is 3:00.”
• You are told to find a large Phillips screwdriver in a cluttered
workroom. You enter the room (you have never been there before),
search without falling over objects, and eventually find the
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screwdriver.
Which of these can currently be done?
• Play a decent game of table tennis

• Drive autonomously along a curving mountain road

• Drive autonomously in the center of Cairo

• Play a decent game of bridge

• Discover and prove a new mathematical theorem

• Write a funny story

• Give competent legal advice in a specialized area of law

• Translate spoken English into spoken Swedish in real time

• Plan schedule of operations for a NASA spacecraft

• Defeat the world champion in chess 23

Components of an AI System
An agent perceives its environment
through sensors and acts on the
environment through actuators.

Human: sensors are eyes, ears,

actuators (effectors) are hands,
legs, mouth.

Robot: sensors are cameras, sonar,

lasers, ladar, bump, effectors are
grippers, manipulators, motors

The agent’s behavior is described by its

function that maps percept to action.

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 Rationality
• A rational agent does the right thing
(what is this?)
• A fixed performance measure evaluates the
sequence of observed action effects on the
environment

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 Performance Measures
PEAS
• Use PEAS to describe task
– Performance measure
– Environment
– Actuators
– Sensors

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 PEAS
• Use PEAS to describe task environment
– Performance measure
– Environment
– Actuators
– Sensors
• Example: Taxi driver
– Performance measure: safe, fast, comfortable (maximize
profits)
– Environment: roads, other traffic, pedestrians, customers
– Actuators: steering, accelerator, brake, signal, horn
– Sensors: cameras, sonar, speedometer, GPS, odometer,
accelerometer, engine sensors 28
 Environment Properties
• Fully observable vs. partially observable
• Deterministic vs. stochastic / strategic
• Episodic vs. sequential
• Static vs. dynamic
• Discrete vs. continuous
• Single agent vs. multiagent

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 Fully Observable vs Partially
Observable
• When an agent sensor is capable to sense or access the
complete state of an agent at each point in time, it is
said to be a fully observable environment else it is
partially observable.
• Maintaining a fully observable environment is easy as
there is no need to keep track of the history of the
surrounding.
• An environment is called unobservable when the agent
has no sensors in all environments.
• Examples:
• Chess – the board is fully observable, and so are the
opponent’s moves.
• Driving – the environment is partially observable because
what’s around the corner is not known.
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 Deterministic vs
Stochastic
• When a uniqueness in the agent’s current state
completely determines the next state of the
agent, the environment is said to be deterministic.
• The stochastic environment is random in nature
which is not unique and cannot be completely
determined by the agent.
• Examples:
• Chess – there would be only a few possible moves for
a coin at the current state and these moves can be
determined.
• Self-Driving Cars- the actions of a self-driving car are
not unique, it varies time to time.

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 Episodic vs Sequential
• In an Episodic task environment,
each of the agent’s actions is divided
into atomic incidents or episodes.
• In a Sequential environment, the
previous decisions can affect all future
decisions. The next action of the agent
depends on what action he has taken
previously
• Example:
– Self-Driving Cars- sequential
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 Discrete vs Continuous
• Discrete: If an environment consists of a
finite number of actions that can be
deliberated in the environment to obtain the
output
• Continuous: The environment in which the
actions are performed cannot be numbered
• Example:
– The chess is discrete as it has only a finite
number of moves. The number of moves might
vary with every game, but still, it’s finite.

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 Single-agent vs multi-agent
• An environment consisting of only
one agent is said to be a single-
agent environment.
• An environment involving more than
one agent is a multi-agent
environment.
• Example:
• The game of football is multi-agent as it
involves 11 players in each team.
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 Environment Examples
Environment Obser Determi Episodic Static Discrete Agents
vable nistic
Chess with a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Semi Discrete Multi

Chess without a clock Fully Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Poker Partial Strategic Sequential Static Discrete Multi

Backgammon Fully Stochasti Sequential Static Discrete Multi

c
Taxi driving Partial Stochasti Sequential Dyna Continu Multi
c mic ous
Fully observable vs. Medical diagnosis Partial Stochasti Episodic Static Continu Single
partially observable c ous

Deterministic vs. Image analysis Fully Determi Episodic Semi Discrete Single
nistic
stochastic / strategic
Robot part picking Fully Determi Episodic Semi Discrete Single
Episodic vs. sequential nistic
Static vs. dynamic Interactive English Partial Stochasti Sequential Dyna Discrete Multi
Discrete vs. continuous tutor c mic

Single agent vs. 35

multiagent
 Agent Types
• Types of agents (increasing in generality and
ability to handle complex environments)
– Simple reflex agents
– Reflex agents with state
– Goal-based agents
– Utility-based agents
– Learning agent

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 Simple Reflex Agent
• Use simple “if
then” rules
• Can be short
sighted

SimpleReflexAgent(percept)
state = InterpretInput(percept) a simple reflex agent is a type of
rule = RuleMatch(state, rules) intelligent agent that performs
action = RuleAction(rule) actions based solely on the
Return action current situation

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 Example: Vacuum Agent

• Performance?
– 1 point for each square cleaned in time T?
– #clean squares per time step - #moves per time step?
• Environment: vacuum, dirt, multiple areas
defined by square regions
• Actions: left, right, suck, idle
• Sensors: location and contents
– [A, dirty] 38
 Reflex Vacuum Agent
• If status=Dirty then return Suck
else if location=A then return Right
else if location=B then right Left

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 Goal-Based Agents

• A goal-based agent is an artificial intelligence agent

that responds to its environment and adjusts
accordingly to achieve a goal.
• Takes time, world may change during reasoning 40
 Utility-Based Agents
• A utility-based
agent is an agent
that acts based
not only on what
the goal is, but the
best way to reach
that goal.
• In short, it's the
usefulness (or
utility ‫ )جدوي‬of the
agent
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 Learning Agents

Learning agent, as the name suggests, has the capability to learn from
past experiences and takes actions or decisions based on learning
capabilities. It gains basic knowledge from past and uses that learning to
act and adapt automatically 42
 Pathfinder Medical Diagnosis System

• Performance: Correct
Hematopathology diagnosis
• Environment: Automate human diagnosis,
partially observable, deterministic, episodic,
static, continuous, single agent
• Actuators: Output diagnoses and further test
suggestions
• Sensors: Input symptoms and test results
• Reasoning: Bayesian networks
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 Webcrawler Softbot
• Search web for items of interest
• Perception: Web pages
• Reasoning: Pattern matching
• Action: Select and traverse hyperlinks

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 Other Example AI Systems
• Knowledge • Natural language
Representation processing
• Search • Uncertainty reasoning
• Problem solving • Computer Vision
• Planning • Robotics
• Machine learning

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