Digital Electronics
BTES-301-18
Topic: Boolean Algebra
SOP & POS Form
Outline
Boolean Operations and Expressions
Laws and Rules of Boolean Algebra
Demorgan's Theorems
Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
Simplification Using Boolean Algebra
Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions
The Karnaugh Map
Boolean Addition
In Boolean algebra, a variable is a symbol used to represent an action, a
condition, or data. A single variable can only have a value of 1 or 0.
The complement represents the inverse of a variable and is indicated
with an overbar. Thus, the complement of A is .
A literal is a variable or its complement.
Addition is equivalent to the OR operation. The sum term is 1 if one or
more if the literals are 1. The sum term is zero only if each literal is 0.
Determine the values of A, B, and C that make the sum term
of the expression A + B + C = 0?
Each literal must = 0; therefore A = 1, B = 0 and C = 1.
Boolean Multiplication
In Boolean algebra, multiplication is equivalent to the AND operation.
The product of literals forms a product term. The product term will be 1
only if all of the literals are 1.
What are the values of the A, B and C if the
product term of A.B.C = 1?
Each literal must = 1; therefore A = 1, B = 0 and C = 0.
Outline
4-1 Boolean Operations and Expressions
4-2 Laws and Rules of Boolean Algebra
4-3 Demorgan's Theorems
4-4 Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
4-5 Simplification Using Boolean Algebra
4-6 Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions
4-7 The Karnaugh Map
Commutative Laws
The commutative laws are applied to addition and multiplication.
For addition, the commutative law states
In terms of the result, the order in which variables are ORed
makes no difference.
A+B=B+A
For multiplication, the commutative law states
In terms of the result, the order in which variables are ANDed
makes no difference.
AB = BA
Associative Laws
The associative laws are also applied to addition and multiplication.
For addition, the associative law states
When ORing more than two variables, the result is the same
regardless of the grouping of the variables.
A + (B +C) = (A + B) + C
For multiplication, the associative law states
When ANDing more than two variables, the result is the same
regardless of the grouping of the variables.
A(BC) = (AB)C
Distributive Law
The distributive law is the factoring law. A common variable can be
factored from an expression just as in ordinary algebra. That is
AB + AC = A(B+ C)
The distributive law can be illustrated with equivalent circuits:
A
AB
B B
B+ C
C X
X A
A AC
C
A(B+ C) AB + AC
Rules of Boolean Algebra
1. A + 0 = A 7. A . A = A
2. A + 1 = 1 8. A . A = 0
=
3. A . 0 = 0 9. A = A
4. A . 1 = A 10. A + AB = A
5. A + A = A 11. A + AB = A + B
6. A + A = 1 12. (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC
Proof – Rule 10
10. A + AB = A
Proof – Rule 11
𝐴+ 𝐴 𝐵= 𝐴+𝐵
Proof – Rule 12
( 𝐴+𝐵)( 𝐴+𝐶 )= 𝐴+𝐵𝐶
Rules of Boolean Algebra
Rule 12, which states that (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC, can
be proven by applying earlier rules as follows:
(A + B)(A + C) = AA + AC + AB + BC
= A + AC + AB + BC
= A(1 + C + B) + BC
= A . 1 + BC
= A + BC
This rule is a little more complicated, but it can also be
shown with a Venn diagram, as given on the following
slide…
Outline
4-1 Boolean Operations and Expressions
4-2 Laws and Rules of Boolean Algebra
4-3 Demorgan's Theorems
4-4 Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
4-5 Simplification Using Boolean Algebra
4-6 Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions
4-7 The Karnaugh Map
DeMorgan’s Theorem
DeMorgan’s 1st Theorem
The complement of a product of variables is
equal to the sum of the complemented variables.
AB = A + B
Applying DeMorgan’s first theorem to gates:
A A Inputs Output
AB A+B
B B
A B AB A + B
NAND Negative-OR 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
DeMorgan’s Theorem
DeMorgan’s 2nd Theorem
The complement of a sum of variables is equal to
the product of the complemented variables.
A+B=A.B
Applying DeMorgan’s second theorem to gates:
A A Inputs Output
A+B AB
B B
A B A + B AB
NOR Negative-AND 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
DeMorgan’s Theorem
Apply DeMorgan’s theorem to remove the
overbar covering both terms from the
expression X = C + D.
To apply DeMorgan’s theorem to the expression,
you can break the overbar covering both terms and
change the sign between the terms. This results in
=
X = C . D. Deleting the double bar gives X = C . D.
Outline
4-1 Boolean Operations and Expressions
4-2 Laws and Rules of Boolean Algebra
4-3 Demorgan's Theorems
4-4 Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
4-5 Simplification Using Boolean Algebra
4-6 Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions
4-7 The Karnaugh Map
Boolean Analysis of Logic
Circuits
Combinational logic circuits can be analyzed by writing
the expression for each gate and combining the
expressions according to the rules for Boolean algebra.
Apply Boolean algebra to derive the expression for X.
Write the expression for each gate:
A (A + B )
C (A + B )
B
C X = C (A + B )+ D
D
Applying DeMorgan’s theorem and the distribution law:
X = C (A B) + D = A B C + D
Outline
4-1 Boolean Operations and Expressions
4-2 Laws and Rules of Boolean Algebra
4-3 Demorgan's Theorems
4-4 Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
4-5 Simplification Using Boolean Algebra
4-6 Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions
4-7 The Karnaugh Map
SOP and POS forms
Boolean expressions can be written in the sum-of-products form
(SOP) or in the product-of-sums form (POS). These forms can
simplify the implementation of combinational logic.
In both forms, an overbar cannot extend over more than one variable.
An expression is in SOP form when two or more product terms are
summed as in the following examples:
ABC+AB ABC+CD CD+E
An expression is in POS form when two or more sum terms are
multiplied as in the following examples:
(A + B)(A + C) (A + B + C)(B + D) (A + B)C
Outline
4-1 Boolean Operations and Expressions
4-2 Laws and Rules of Boolean Algebra
4-3 Demorgan's Theorems
4-4 Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
4-5 Simplification Using Boolean Algebra
4-6 Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions
4-7 The Karnaugh Map
SOP Standard form set of variables contained
in the expression
In SOP standard form, every variable in the domain must
appear in each term.
- This form is useful for constructing truth tables or for implementing
logic in PLDs.
- You can expand a nonstandard term to standard form by multiplying
the term by a term consisting of the sum of the missing variable and its
complement.
Convert X = A B + A B C to standard form.
The first term does not include the variable C. Therefore,
multiply it by the (C + C), which = 1:
X = A B (C + C) + A B C
=ABC+ABC+ABC
POS Standard form
In POS standard form, every variable in the domain must
appear in each sum term of the expression.
You can expand a nonstandard POS expression to standard form by
adding the product of the missing variable and its complement and
applying rule 12, which states that (A + B)(A + C) = A + BC.
Convert X = (A + B)(A + B + C) to standard form.
The first sum term does not include the variable C.
Therefore, add C C and expand the result by rule 12.
X = (A + B + C C)(A + B + C)
= (A +B + C )(A + B + C)(A + B + C)
Outline
4-1 Boolean Operations and Expressions
4-2 Laws and Rules of Boolean Algebra
4-3 Demorgan's Theorems
4-4 Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
4-5 Simplification Using Boolean Algebra
4-6 Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions
4-7 The Karnaugh Map
Karnaugh maps
The Karnaugh map (K-map) is a tool for simplifying
combinational logic with 3 or 4 variables. For 3 variables,
8 cells are required (23).
The map shown is for three variables
labeled A, B, and C. Each cell ABC ABC
represents one possible product
ABC ABC
term.
Each cell differs from an adjacent ABC ABC
cell by only one variable.
ABC ABC
Karnaugh maps
Cells are usually labeled using 0’s and 1’s to represent the
variable and its complement.
C The numbers are entered in gray
AB 0 1
code, to force adjacent cells to be
00 different by only one variable.
Gray 01 Ones are read as the true variable
code and zeros are read as the
11
complemented variable.
10
Karnaugh maps
Alternatively, cells can be labeled with the variable
letters. This makes it simple to read, but it takes more
time preparing the map.
CC CC
Read the terms for the AB
AB ABC ABC
yellow cells.
AB
AB ABC
ABC ABC
AB
The cells are ABC and ABC. AB ABC ABC
AB
AB ABC ABC
ABC
Karnaugh maps
Karnaugh maps
K-maps can simplify combinational logic by grouping
cells and eliminating variables that change.
Group the 1’s on the map and read the minimum logic.
CC 00 11
AB
AB
11 1. Group the 1’s into two overlapping
00
00
B changes groups as indicated.
across this 01
01 11 11 2. Read each group by eliminating any
boundary variable that changes across a
11
boundary.
10
10 C changes 3. The vertical group is read AC.
across this 4. The horizontal group is read AB.
boundary
X = AC +AB
Karnaugh maps
A 4-variable map has an adjacent cell on each of its four
boundaries as shown.
Each cell is different only by
CD CD CD CD
one variable from an adjacent
AB
cell.
AB Grouping follows the rules
AB
given in the text.
AB
Karnaugh maps
Group the 1’s on the map and read the minimum logic.
C changes across
outer boundary
CD
AB
00 01 11 10 1. Group the 1’s into two separate
00 1 1 groups as indicated.
B changes 2. Read each group by eliminating
01 1 1 any variable that changes across a
11 1 1
boundary.
B changes 3. The upper (yellow) group is read as
10 1 1 AD.
C changes
4. The lower (green) group is read
as AD.
X
X = AD +AD
Karnaugh maps
Group the 1’s on the map and read the minimum logic.
Karnaugh maps
Group the 1’s on the map and read the minimum logic.
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed
Karnaugh maps
Group the 1’s on the map and read the minimum logic.
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed
Selected Key Terms
Variable A symbol used to represent a logical quantity that can have a
value of 1 or 0, usually designated by an italic letter.
Complement The inverse or opposite of a number. In Boolean algebra, the
inverse function, expressed with a bar over the variable.
Sum term The Boolean sum of two or more literals equivalent to an OR
operation.
Product term The Boolean product of two or more literals equivalent to an
AND operation.
Selected Key Terms
Sum-of- A form of Boolean expression that is basically the ORing of
products (SOP) ANDed terms.
Product of A form of Boolean expression that is basically the ANDing
sums (POS) of ORed terms.
Karnaugh map An arrangement of cells representing combinations of literals
in a Boolean expression and used for systematic
simplification of the expression.
VHDL A standard hardware description language. IEEE Std. 1076-
1993.
