DHScience ∙ Year 2

Ionic Bonding & Covalent Bonding

For
CG1
&
CG2
The Periodic Table of Elements
 Electronic Configuration of Noble Gases

• The noble gases in Group 18 (helium, neon, argon,

krypton, xenon and radon) tend to be unreactive.

• As the electron arrangements of noble gases are

relatively stable, noble gases exist naturally as
monatomic elements.
 Electronic Configuration of Noble Gases

He: 2 stable duplet configuration

Ne: 2, 8
Ar: 2, 8, 8
stable octet configuration

• In general, when atoms react to form compounds, they

tend to combine in such a way that have the same
electronic configuration as a noble gas.
 This is known as a stable duplet / octet
configuration.
One way they can achieve this is through the
formation of ions
 RECAP….
• The Kinetic Theory of Matter states that all matter is
made up of numerous tiny particles which are in
continuous random motion.
What type of particles?
Ions

Atoms Molecules
What are ions?
 Formation of Ions
Atoms Ions
• Atoms have equal number • Protons and neutrons are
of protons and electrons. in the nucleus, so they
• They are electrically cannot “leave” easily.
neutral. • Electrons are very small
and fast moving. They are
Electron found around in regions
Nucleus
around the nucleus.
Proton Thus, electrons can be
Neutron
easily lost or gained.

Electron shell
 Formation of Ions
• An ion is formed when an atom or a group
of atoms loses or gains electron(s), such
that it acquires an electrical charge.
• Atoms lose or gain electrons to obtain the
duplet or octet configuration in order to
achieve greater stability.
• The process of atoms losing or gaining
electrons form the basis for chemical
reactions.
 Positive Ions - Cations
• Known as cations
• Atoms lose electrons to form positive ions.
• The ion will now have more protons than
electrons, which gives an overall positive charge.

Na Na +

A sodium atom can lose 1 electron to become an ion

which carries a positive one charge (cation).
 Positive Ions - Cations
23 Number of protons = 11

11Na Number of electrons

Number of neutrons
= 11
= 23 - 11
Sodium atom
= 12

Number of protons = 11
+
Na Number of electrons = 11 – 1
= 10
Sodium ion
Overall charge = 1+
Number of neutrons = 12
 Negative Ions - Anions
• Known as anions
• Atoms gain electrons to form negative ions.
• The ion will now have less protons than electrons,
which gives an overall negative charge.

F F -

A fluorine atom can gain 1 electron to become an ion

which carries a negative one charge (anion).
 Negative Ions - Anions
19 Number of protons =9

9 F Number of electrons
Number of neutrons
=9
= 19 - 9
Fluorine atom
= 10

Number of protons =9
-
F Number of electrons =9+1
= 10
Fluoride ion
Overall charge = 1-
Number of neutrons = 10
 Self-Check

• Attempt the questions on your own and check

your answers at the back of the notes after.
 Positive Ions - Cations
• Metallic atoms tend to lose electrons to form cations (positive ions)
• Group 1 metals tend to form X+ ions
• Group 2 metals tend to form X2+ ions WHY??
• Group 13 metals tend to form X3+ ions

Li Li+ Be Be2+

2 2
Na Na+ Mg Mg2+ Al Al 3+

2,8 2,8 2,8

 Negative Ions - Anions
• Non-metallic atoms tend to gain electrons to form anions (negative ions)
• Group 17 non-metals tend to form X- ions
• Group 16 non-metals tend to form X2- ions WHY??
• Group 15 non-metals tend to form X3- ions

N N3- O O2- F F-

2,8 2,8 2,8

P P3- S S2- Cl Cl -

2,8,8 2,8,8 2,8,8

Ionic Bonding
Metal Non-
atom metal
atom

Metal Non-metal
cation anion
 Ionic Bonding
• Ionic bonding occurs mainly between metals and
non-metals.
• When metallic atoms lose electrons, they form
cations.
• When non-metallic atoms gain electrons, they form
anions.
• Ionic bonding involves the transfer of electrons from
metallic atoms to non-metallic atoms. Bonding
occurs to allow atoms to acquire stable duplet or
octet configuration.
• The ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction
between oppositely-charged ions.
Ionic Bonding
Dogs teaching Ionic Bonding
 Ionic Bonding
In case you were wondering…

Why do metal atoms tend to lose electrons?

• They are usually found in Groups 1, 2, 13
• They have less than 4 valence electrons!
• It is easier to lose electrons to acquire stable
duplet or octet configuration.

24
 Ionic Bonding
In case you were wondering…

Why do non-metal atoms tend to gain electrons?

• They are usually found in Groups 15, 16, 17
• They have more than 4 valence electrons!
• It is easier to gain electrons to acquire stable
duplet or octet configuration.

25
 Ionic Bonding
Example 1: Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Use Periodic Table to Na: 11 protons, 11 electrons
find out the number Cl: 17 protons, 17 electrons
of electrons in the
atom
Electronic Na: 2, 8, 1
configuration of Cl: 2, 8, 7
atoms
Lose or gain Na: lose 1e to attain 2,8 configuration
electrons? Cl: gain 1e to attain 2,8,8 configuration
Derive ion charge Na: 11 protons, 10 electrons
 1 extra “+” charge
Cl: 17 protons, 18 electrons
 1 extra “-” charge
 Ionic Bonding
Example 1: Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Why does each unit of sodium chloride, NaCl, consist of one
sodium ion and one chloride ion?

 Chlorine atom accepts the one electron lost from sodium

atom!
 Hence, NaCl in the dot-and-cross diagram means ratio 1:1
 Ionic Bonding
Example 1: Sodium chloride (NaCl)

The positive sodium ion, Na+ and the negative ion, Cl-, are attracted
to each other by strong electrostatic force of attraction. This
constitutes ionic bonding.
 Ionic Bonding
Example 2: Magnesium fluoride (MgF2)
Use Periodic Table to Mg: 12 protons, 12 electrons
find out the number
F: 9 protons, 9 electrons
of electrons in the
atom
Electronic Mg: 2,8,2
configuration of
F: 2,7
atoms
Lose or gain Mg: lose 2e to attain 2,8 configuration
electrons?
F: gain 1e to attain 2,8 configuration
Derive ion charge Mg: 12 protons, 10 electrons
 2 extra “+” charges
F: 9 protons, 10 electrons
 1 extra “-“ charge
 Ionic Bonding
Example 3: Magnesium fluoride (MgF2)

Each unit of magnesium fluoride, MgF2 consists of

one magnesium ion and two fluoride ions. Why?
Key concept in formation of ionic compounds:

Number of electrons lost by metal atom(s)

equals to

Number of electrons gained by non-metal atom(s)

 Ionic Bonding
Each unit of magnesium fluoride, MgF2 consists of
one magnesium ion and two fluoride ions. Why?
 One fluorine atom can only accept the 1st electron lost
from a magnesium atom
 Hence, another fluorine atom is needed to accept the
2nd electron lost from the magnesium atom
Example of an ionic compound
with ionic bonding

Name: Sodium chloride

Chemical formula: NaCl
Type of substance: Compound
Na+ Cl - Giant ionic
Dot & cross diagram: structure
+ -
Na Cl
What ionic bonding really looks like
sodium ion chloride ion

Giant ionic
structure

Arrangement of ions in a sodium chloride crystal

A crystal of sodium chloride consists of large numbers

of Na+ and Cl- ions arranged in an orderly manner.
Diagram shows how the ions are packed together.
More Examples of Ionic Compounds

NaCl NaNO3 Na2CO3 Na2O

CuSO4 Cu(NO3)2 CuCl2 CuCO3

FeSO4 Fe(NO3)3 FeCl3 Fe2(SO4)3

CoCl2 KMnCl
2Cr2O27
Fe2O3 CuO
 RECAP….
• The Kinetic Theory of Matter states that all matter is
made up of numerous tiny particles which are in
continuous random motion.
What type of particles?
Ions

Atoms Molecules

What is a molecule?

How are the atoms

chemically combined
in a molecule?
 Recap: Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
Using the diagrammatic representations,
(i) state the identities of the substances using the names given below.
Neon (Ne) Oxygen (O2) Nitrogen (N2)
Water (H2O) Carbon dioxide (CO2) Ammonia (NH3)
(ii) classify the substances shown as an element, a compound or a mixture.

Name of substance(s)
a)
Neon
…………………………………………….

Classification

Element
…………………………………………….
 Recap: Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
Using the diagrammatic representations,
(i) state the identities of the substances using the names given below.
Neon (Ne) Oxygen (O2) Nitrogen (N2)
Water (H2O) Carbon dioxide (CO2) Ammonia (NH3)
(ii) classify the substances shown as an element, a compound or a mixture.

Name of substance(s)
b)
Oxygen / Nitrogen
…………………………………………….

Classification

Element
…………………………………………….
 Recap: Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
Using the diagrammatic representations,
(i) state the identities of the substances using the names given below.
Neon (Ne) Oxygen (O2) Nitrogen (N2)
Water (H2O) Carbon dioxide (CO2) Ammonia (NH3)
(ii) classify the substances shown as an element, a compound or a mixture.

Name of substance(s)
c)
Neon and Oxygen /
…………………………………………….
Neon and Nitrogen
Classification

Mixture of two elements

…………………………………………….
 Recap: Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
Using the diagrammatic representations,
(i) state the identities of the substances using the names given below.
Neon (Ne) Oxygen (O2) Nitrogen (N2)
Water (H2O) Carbon dioxide (CO2) Ammonia (NH3)
(ii) classify the substances shown as an element, a compound or a mixture.

Name of substance(s)
d)
Water and Carbon dioxide
…………………………………………….

Classification

Mixture of two compounds

…………………………………………….
 Recap: Elements, Compounds and Mixtures

• Elements can exist as either atoms or molecules.

• Some compounds exist as molecules.
• Molecules are made up of a group of atoms
chemically bonded together.

Question:
• What holds the atoms together to form a molecule?
• Are all atoms bonded together this way?
How about bonding between two non-metal atoms?

Cl Cl

Cl Cl
Cl2
Covalent Bonding
 Covalent Bonding

• Covalent bonding occurs mainly between atoms of

non-metals.
• Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons
between two non-metallic atoms.
• A pair of electrons that is shared between the two
atoms is known as a single covalent bond.
• Bonding occurs to allow atoms to acquire stable
duplet or octet configuration. This results in the
formation of a neutral molecule.
Covalent Bonding
Dogs teaching Covalent Bonding
 Key concepts for covalent bonding
• Sharing of electrons between atoms occurs in the
valence shell.

• Number of electrons to be shared by each atom =

Number of electrons required to attain a duplet / octet
configuration.
 Covalent Bonding
Example 1: Hydrogen
This is a molecule of an element
Number of H: 1 electron
electrons in the
atom
Electronic H: 1
configuration
How many Needs 1e more to achieve duplet
electrons needed configuration
to achieve duplet /
octet
Number of valence Shares 1e with another hydrogen atom
electrons to be
shared
 Covalent Bonding
Example 1: Hydrogen Dot-and-cross diagram of H2:

H + H H H

Hydrogen atom Hydrogen atom Hydrogen molecule

H H H2
Key: electron of H
electron of another H

When one pair of electrons (two electrons) is shared between

two atoms, a single bond is formed.
 Covalent Bonding
Example 2: Oxygen
This is a molecule of an element
Number of O: 8 electrons
electrons in the
atom
Electronic O: 2, 6
configuration
How many Needs 2e more to achieve octet
electrons needed configuration
to achieve duplet /
octet
Number of valence Shares 2e with another oxygen atom
electrons to be
shared
 Covalent Bonding
Example 2: Oxygen Dot-and-cross diagram of O2:

O + O O O

Oxygen atom Oxygen atom Oxygen molecule

O O O2
Key: electron of O
electron of another O

When two pairs of electrons (four electrons) are shared between

two atoms, a double bond is formed.
 Covalent Bonding
Example 3: Water
This is a molecule of a compound
Number of H: 1 electron
electrons in the O: 8 electrons
atom
Electronic H: 1
configuration O: 2, 6
How many H: Needs 1e more to achieve stable duplet
electrons needed configuration
to achieve duplet / O: Needs 2e more to achieve stable octet
octet
configuration
 Covalent Bonding
Example 4: Water
Think! How many hydrogen atoms are needed to share electrons
with one atom of oxygen?

 Hydrogen atom needs to share 1e each, while oxygen atom

needs to share 2e each.
 Hence, 2 hydrogen atoms are needed to share 1 electron each
with 1 oxygen atom.

Number of valence H: Shares 1e each with O atom

electrons to be O: Shares 2e in total
shared
 Covalent Bonding
Example 4: Water Bonding in H2O:

2
O
O
+ H
H H

Hydrogen atoms Water molecule

Oxygen atom
H H 2O
O
Key: electron of H
electron of O

Each water molecule has two O-H single bonds (each O-H bond
consists of a pair of shared electrons).
 Covalent Bonding
Example 4: Water
Extra notes for water molecule
(for your information):

 It has a “bent” structure

(“inverted mickey-mouse face”).
 This is due to electrostatic
repulsion between the lone
pairs of electrons (unshared
electrons) and the bond pairs,
which pushes the hydrogen
atoms away.
 Examples of covalent substances
with covalent bonding
Substance: Chlorine gas
Chemical formula : Cl2
covalent bond
Type of substance: Element
Dot & cross diagram
(valence electrons only):

Simple molecular
structure
 Examples of covalent substances
with covalent bonding
Substance: Water
Chemical formula : H2O Dot & cross diagram:

Type of substance: Compound

H H

Simple molecular
structure
 Examples of covalent substances
with covalent bonding
Examples: H2, O2, N2, Cl2, HCl, CO2, SO3, NH3, CH4, H2O, H2SO4,
C2H5OH, I2, S8, naphthalene, sucrose, etc.
Simple molecular
structure
 More Examples of Covalent Substances
Ethanol, C2H5OH
• Ethanol is used as a
solvent for other
compounds such as
paints and varnishes,
perfumes and
deodorants.
• Ethanol is also used as a
fuel for motor vehicles
in place of petrol.
• Ethanol is used in
alcoholic drinks such as
beer and wine.
 More Examples of Covalent Substances

Ethanoic Acid, CH3COOH

• Ethanoic acid is used

in food as a flavouring
and as a preservative,
e.g. vinegar
• Citric acid and tartaric
acid are used as
flavourings and
preservatives in soft
drinks.
Difference between ionic and covalent bonding
 Quick Check:
Comparing Ionic bonding & Covalent bonding

Ionic bonding Covalent bonding

Occurs mainly between metallic Occurs mainly between non-
and non-metallic atoms metallic atoms

Electron transfer between atoms Sharing of electrons between

to form oppositely-charged ions atoms to form a molecule

Electrostatic forces of attraction This constitutes covalent bonding

between oppositely-charged ions
results in ionic bonding
 Quick Check:
Comparing Ionic bonding & Covalent bonding
Ionic bonding Covalent bonding
Leads to the formation of Leads to the formation of
giant ionic structure molecules

Ionic bonds are found only in Covalent bonds can be found in

compounds, both elements and compounds,
as ionic bonding occurs between as covalent bonding can occur
atoms of different elements between atoms of same or
(metal and non-metal). different elements.
 Linking it all together!!
Type of
Examples Type of particles
substance

Elements Metallic elements

atoms
 made up of e.g. Fe, K, Mg, Au
only one e.g. He, Ne, Ar, Kr
type of (noble gases)
atom
 cannot be atoms
Non- e.g. C (in diamond
broken metallic
down into and graphite)
elements
simpler
substances molecules
by chemical e.g. H2, O2, O3, N2, P4, (covalent bonding
methods S8 between atoms)
 Linking it all together!!
Type of substance Examples Type of particles
Covalent compounds
molecules
e.g. H2O, CO2, NH3,
(covalent bonding
CH4, HCl between atoms)
Compounds
 made up of two or ions
more elements Ionic compounds e.g. Na+ and Cl- ions in
 chemically combined NaCl
e.g. NaCl, MgO, CaCO3,
together in fixed
Mg2+ and O2- ions in
composition by mass K2SO4
MgO
 cannot be separated
by physical methods Ca2+ and CO32- ions
in CaCO3
(ionic bonding
between ions)
 Linking it all together!!
Type of Type of
Examples
substance particles
Mixture of elements
e.g. brass – an alloy made up of two
Mixtures elements, copper and zinc
 made up of
two or more Mixture of compounds mixture of
substances e.g. salt solution – made up of two
atoms /
(elements and compounds, salt and water
molecules /
compounds) ions
 can be Mixture of elements and
separated by compounds
physical e.g. air – made up of elements
methods (oxygen, nitrogen, noble gases)
and compounds (carbon dioxide,
water vapour)