Notre Dame University Liberia

Introduction to Educational Research

Course Facilitator: Roland Ndukong Tangiri

Course program

Week 1:
Introduction to Research
•Meaning of Research in Education.
•The nature and Characteristics of educational research.
•Objectives of undertaking Scientific Research investigation.
•Research in different disciplines; Education, Behavioral Sciences (Liberal Arts
and Social Sciences), Natural & the Physical Sciences and Science and
Technology.
Course program

Week 2:
The major Scientific research processes/stages
•Problem identification
•Review of Literature
•Methodology
•Analysis and Results Presentation.
•Discussion of finding and conclusion
•APA reference
Course program

Week 3:
Research Problem
•The nature and Characteristics of a good research problem.
•Sources of a good research problem.
•Differences between research Topic and research question.
•Research Hypothesis. Types, uses and application..
•Research Variables; Types and uses.
Course program

Week 4:
Literature Review.
•Meaning, approaches, importance of conducting good literature review.
•Research Methods.
•Types of Research (Qualitative, Quantitative, Mixed Methods).
•Role of Research Methods in Educational Research.
• Ethical Considerations in Educational Research.
Chap 1: Introduction to Research

Content
•Meaning of Research in Education.
•The nature and Characteristics of educational research.
•Objectives of undertaking Scientific Research investigation.
•Research in different disciplines; Education, Behavioral Sciences (Liberal
Arts and Social Sciences), Natural & the Physical Sciences and
Science and Technology.
Objectives.

At the end of the lesson students should be able to:

•Meaning of Research in Education.
•The nature and Characteristics of educational research.
•Objectives of undertaking Scientific Research investigation.
•Research in different disciplines; Education, Behavioral Sciences (Liberal
Arts and Social Sciences), Natural & the Physical Sciences and
Science and Technology.
1.1: Meaning of Research in Education.

a) Definitions of Concepts
i) Meaning of Research.
Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to
increase our understanding of a topic or issue. At a general level, research
consists of three steps:
1. Pose a question.
2. Collect data to answer the question.
3. Present an answer to the question.
1.1: Meaning of Research in Education.

ii) Meaning of Educational Research.

Educational research refers to a systematic attempt to gain a better understanding
of the educational process, generally with a view in improving its efficiency.
It is an application of scientific methods to the study of educational problems.

Educational research is the study and investigation in the field of education.

The final purpose of educational research is to ascertain principles and develop
procedures for use in the field of education.
1.2: The nature and Characteristics of educational research.

•Educational research is a type of research that focuses on the

investigation of educational processes, policies, and practices.

•It is a systematic and scientific inquiry that uses a variety of research

methods to generate knowledge and improve educational outcomes.
Here are some of the key characteristics of educational research:
.
1.2: The nature and Characteristics of educational research.

•Empirical: Educational research is empirical in nature, meaning that it is based on

observations and data collected through systematic methods. This data is used to
support or refute theories, concepts, or hypotheses related to educational practices.
•Systematic: Educational research is systematic in its approach, meaning that it is
conducted using a well-defined research process. This includes clearly defining
research questions or hypotheses, selecting appropriate research methods,
collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.
•Objective: Educational research is objective in nature, meaning that it strives to be
free from personal biases or prejudices. Researchers should strive to maintain a
neutral and unbiased perspective throughout the research process.
1.2: The nature and Characteristics of educational research.

•Generalizable: Educational research should be generalizable, meaning that the

findings should be applicable to a larger population beyond the sample used in the
research. This requires appropriate sampling methods and statistical analysis to
ensure that the findings are representative of the larger population.
•Ethical: Educational research must adhere to ethical principles and guidelines,
including informed consent, protection of participants’ rights and confidentiality, and
the avoidance of harm.
•Practical: Educational research should have practical applications and be relevant
to educational practice. The findings should be useful to educators and policymakers
in making decisions related to curriculum, teaching methods, and other educational
policies and practices.
1.2: The nature and Characteristics of educational research.

.Collaborative: Educational research is often conducted collaboratively, with

multiple researchers working together to design and conduct studies and
analyze data. Collaboration can help to ensure the quality and rigor of the
research, as well as facilitate the dissemination and application of the
findings..
1.3: Objectives of undertaking Scientific Research investigation.

i)It helps one to find solutions to particular problems arising in the

classroom, school or any other educational entity;
ii)It underpins professional learning of knowledge, skills, understanding
and practice; iii)It connects the educational researcher with sources of
information and networks of professional support;
iv)It clarifies purposes, processes and priorities when introducing
change, for instance, to curriculum, pedagogy, assessment or all;
1.3: Objectives of undertaking Scientific Research investigation.

v)It improves the researcher‟s understanding of the professional and policy

context organizationally, locally and nationally, enabling one to teach and
lead more strategically and effectively; and
vi)Educational research develops one‟s influence, competencies, self-
efficacy and voice within one‟s own school and more widely within the
profession.
vii)Verifies previous findings, promotes change of the concept of education,
and facilitates the teaching and learning process.
1.4: Research in different disciplines; Education, Behavioral
Sciences (Liberal Arts and Social Sciences), Natural & the
Physical Sciences and Science and Technology.

Education:
1.4: Research in different disciplines; Education, Behavioral Sciences
(Liberal Arts and Social Sciences), Natural & the Physical Sciences
and Science and Technology.
Behavioral Sciences (Liberal Arts and Social Sciences).
Behavioral scientists study when and why individuals engage in specific behaviors by
experimentally examining the impact of factors such as conscious thoughts, motivation,
social influences, contextual effects, and habits.

Natural & Physical Sciences

Natural and Physical Sciences is the study of all living organisms and inanimate natural
objects, through experiment, observation and deduction.
1.4: Research in different disciplines; Education, Behavioral Sciences
(Liberal Arts and Social Sciences), Natural & the Physical Sciences
and Science and Technology.

Science and Technology.

Basic Research is a type of research used in the scientific field to understand
and extend our knowledge about a specific phenomenon or field. It is also
accepted as pure investigation or fundamental research. This type of research
contributes to the intellectual body of knowledge.
Week 2:
The major Scientific research processes/stages

Content:
The major Scientific research processes/stages
•Problem identification
•Review of Literature
•Methodology
•Analysis and Results Presentation.
•Discussion of finding and conclusion
•APA citation and referencing
.
 2.0: Introduction
When researchers conduct a study, they proceed through a distinct set of steps.
Years ago these steps were identified as the “scientific method” of inquiry
(Kerlinger, 1972;Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). Using a “scientific method,” researchers:

◆ Identify a problem that defines the goal of research

◆ Make a prediction that, if confirmed, resolves the problem
◆ Gather data relevant to this prediction
◆ Analyze and interpret the data to see if it supports the prediction and resolves the
question that initiated the research
 2.0: Introduction
Applied today, these steps provide the foundation for educational research. Although
not all studies include predictions, you engage in these steps whenever you undertake
a research study. As shown in Figure 1.2, the process of research consists of six steps:
1. Identifying a research problem
2. Reviewing the literature
3. Specifying a purpose for research
4. Collecting data
5. Analyzing and interpreting the data
6. Reporting and evaluating research
 2.1: Problem identification
Identifying a Research Problem
• Specifying a problem
• Justifying it
• Suggesting the need to study it for audiences

You begin a research study by identifying a topic to study—typically an issue or

problem in education that needs to be resolved.
Identifying a research problem consists of specifying an issue to study, developing
a justification for studying it, and suggesting the importance of the study for select
audiences that will read the report. By specifying a“problem,” you limit the subject
matter and focus attention on a specific aspect of study.
Consider the following “problems,” each of which merits research:
◆ Teens are not learning how to connect to others in their communities
◆ Teenage smoking will lead to many premature deaths
 2.2: Reviewing the Literature
It is important to know who has studied the research problem you plan to examine.
You may fear that you will initiate and conduct a study that merely replicates prior
research.
However, faculty and advisors often fear that you will plan a study that does not
build on existing knowledge and does not add to the accumulation of fi ndings on
a topic.
Because of these concerns, reviewing the literature is an important step in the
research process.
Reviewing the literature means locating summaries, books, journals, and indexed
publications on a topic; selectively choosing which literature to include in your
review; and then summarizing the literature in a written report.
The skills required for reviewing the literature develop over time and with practice.
 2.2: Aim
Specifying a Purpose for Research
If your research problem covers a broad topic of concern, you need to focus it so
that you can study it.
A focused restatement of the problem is the purpose statement. This statement
conveys the overall objective or intent of your research.
As such, it is the most important statement in your research study.
It introduces the entire study, signals the procedures you will use to collect data,
and indicates the types of results you hope to find.
The purpose for research consists of identifying the major intent or objective for a
study and narrowing it into specific research questions or hypotheses.
 2.2: Research Question
The purpose statement contains the major focus of the study, the participants in
the study, and the location or site of the inquiry.
This purpose statement is then narrowed to research questions or predictions that
you plan to answer in your research study.
 2.3: Methodology
Collecting Data
Evidence helps provide answers to your research questions and hypotheses. To
get these answers, you engage in the step of collecting or gathering data.
Collecting data means identifying and selecting individuals for a study, obtaining
their permission to study them, and gathering information by asking people
questions or observing their behaviors. Of paramount concern in this process is
the need to obtain accurate data from individuals and places(Population
Sambling).
This step will produce a collection of numbers (test scores, frequency of
behaviors),Quantitative; or words (responses, opinions, quotes)Qualitaive; or
through both.
Once you identify these individuals and places(population sambling), you write
method or procedure sections into your research studies. Many decisions,
however, go into creating a good data collection procedure.
 2.4: Analyzing of data and results Presentation.
During or immediately after data collection, you need to make sense of the
information supplied by individuals in the study.
Analysis consists of “taking the data apart” to determine individual responses and
then “putting it together” to summarize it.
Analyzing and presenting the data involves ;
representing it in tables,
figures, and
pictures to summarize it.
 2.5: Discussion of findings and conclusion.

Discussions of findings and conclusion at times recommendation.

and explaining the conclusions in words to provide answers to your research

questions.
You report analysis and interpretation in sections of a research report usually titled
Findings and cnclusion
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
What is APA Style?

The American Psychological Association (APA) citation style

is the most commonly used format for manuscripts in the
social sciences.

APA regulates:
• Stylistics
• In-text citations
• References
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
First-person pronouns rather than third-person

•: “We conducted an experiment…”

•: “The authors conducted an experiment….”
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
Language in an APA paper should be:

• Clear: be specific in descriptions and explanations

• Concise: condense information when you can

• Plain: use simple, descriptive adjectives and minimize

figurative language
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing

In-text citations help readers locate the cited source in the References
section of the paper. In-text citations follow either a parenthetical
format or a narrative format.

A parenthetical citation includes both the author’s last name and year of
publication, separated by a comma, in parentheses at the end of the
sentence.

EX: Research suggests that the Purdue OWL is a good resource for
students (Atkins, 2018).

A narrative citation includes the author’s name directly in the sentence,

with the year of publication directly following the author’s last name.

EX: Atkins (2018) suggests that the Purdue OWL is a good resource for
students.
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing

If the source you’re citing includes page numbers, add that information
to your citation.

For a parenthetical citation, the page number follows the year of

publication, separated by a comma, and with a lowercase p and a
period before the number (p.)

EX: Research suggests that the Purdue OWL is a good resource for
students (Atkins, 2018, p. 12).

For a narrative citation, the page number comes at the end of the
sentence, once again preceded by a lowercase p and a period (p.)

EX: Atkins (2018) suggests that the Purdue OWL is a good resource for
students (p. 12).
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing

When quoting:
Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase

If using the parenthetical citation, include the author, date of

publication, and page number at the end of the quotation.

EX: As scientific knowledge advances, “the application of CRISPR

technology to improve human health is being explored across public
and private sectors”(Hong, 2018, p. 503).

If using the narrative-style citation, include the author’s last name in

the signal phrase, with the page number at the end of the quote.

EX: Hong (2018) stated that “the application of CRISPR technology to

improve human health is being explored across public and private
sectors” (p. 503).
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
Follow the same guidelines for parenthetical and narrative citations
when summarizing or paraphrasing a longer chunk of text.

Parenthetical citation:

EX: In one study that consisted of 467 young adults, it was found
that social media use may not directly affect mental health; rather, it
depends on how young adults use social media (Berryman et al., 2018).

Narrative citation:

EX: Berryman et al. (2018) sampled 467 young adults about their
social media use and mental health and found that social media use
may not directly affect mental health; rather, it depends on how young
adults use social media.
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
Introduce quotations with signal phrases, e.g.:

According to Reynolds (2019), “….” (p. 3).

Reynolds (2019) argued that“……” (p. 3).

Use signal verbs such as:

acknowledged, contended, maintained,
responded, reported, argued, concluded, etc.

Use the past tense or the present perfect tense of verbs in signal
phrases when they discuss past events.
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
When the parenthetical citation includes two or more works:
•Order them in the same way they appear in the reference list—the
author’s name, the year of publication—separated by a semi-colon.

EX: Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet (Adams, 2018; Collins, 2017).
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
When citing a work with two authors:
•In the narrative citation, use “and” in between the authors’ names

EX: According to scientists Depietri and McPhearson (2018),

“Understanding the occurrence and impacts of historical climatic
hazards is critical to better interpret current hazard trends” (p. 96).

•In the parenthetical citation, use “&” between names

EX: When examining potential climate threats, “Understanding

the occurrence and impacts of historical climatic hazards is critical to
better interpret current hazard trends” (Depietri & McPhearson, 2018, p.
96).
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
When citing a work with three or more authors:
•list the name of the first author plus “et al.” in every citation.

EX: Lin et al. (2019) examined how weather conditions affect the
popularity of the bikesharing program in Beijing.

EX: One study looked at how weather conditions affected the

popularity of bikesharing programs, specifically the Beijing Public
Bikesharing Program (Lin et al., 2019).
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
When citing a work with an unknown author:
•Use the source’s full title in the narrative citation.
•Cite the first word of the title followed by the year of publication in the
parenthetical citation.

EX: According to “Here’s How Gardening Benefits Your Health”

(2018)

EX: (“Here’s,” 2018)

Titles:
Articles and Chapters = “ ”
Books and Reports = italicize
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
When citing a group author:
•Mention the organization the first time you cite the source in either the
narrative citation or the parenthetical citation.
•If you first mention the group in a narrative citation, list the
abbreviation before the year of publication in parentheses, separated by
a comma.

EX: “The data collected by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA,
2019) confirmed…”

•If you first mention the group in a parenthetical citation, list the
abbreviation in square brackets, followed by a comma and the year of
publication.

EX: (Food and Drug Administration [FDA], 2019).

 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
When citing authors with the same last names:
•Use first initials with the last names.

EX: (B. Davis, 2018; Y. Davis, 2020)

When citing two or more works by the same author and

published in the same year:
•Use lower-case letters (a, b, c) after the year of publication to order the
references.

EX: Chen’s (2018a) study of bird migration…

 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
When citing personal communication (interviews, letters, e-
mails, etc.):
•Include the communicator’s name, the fact that it was personal
communication, and the date of the communication.
•Narrative citation:

EX: B. E. Anderson (personal communication, January 8, 2020)

also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style.

•Parenthetical citation:

EX: One teacher mentioned that many of her students had

difficulties with APA style (Anderson, personal communication, January
8, 2020).
reference
•Do not include personal communication in the list.
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
When citing a text with no page numbers: parenthetical citation
•Use any of the following four methods
•List the heading or section name
EX: One scientist noted that “A cup full of kale can help your
body out in a number of ways” (London, 2019, Health benefits of
kale section).
•List an abbreviated heading or section name in quotation marks (if the
heading is too long)
EX: One scientist noted that “A cup full of kale can help your body
out in a number of ways” (London, 2019, “Health benefits” section).
•List the paragraph number
EX: One scientist noted that “A cup full of kale can help your body
out in a number of ways” (London, 2019, para. 2).
•List the heading or section name and the paragraph number
EX: One scientist noted that “A cup full of kale can help your body
out in a number of ways” (London, 2019, Health benefits of kale
section, para. 2).
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
When citing a text with no page numbers: narrative citation
•Use any of the following four methods
•List the heading or section name
EX: Scientist Jaclyn London (2019, Health benefits of kale
section) noted that “A cup full of kale can help your body out in a
number of ways.”
•List an abbreviated heading or section name in quotation marks (if the
heading is too long)
EX: Scientist Jaclyn London (2019, “Health benefits” section) noted
that “A cup full of kale can help your body out in a number of ways.”
•List the paragraph number
EX: Scientist Jaclyn London (2019, para. 2) noted that “A cup full of
kale can help your body out in a number of ways.”
•List the heading or section name and the paragraph number
EX: Scientist Jaclyn London (2019, Health benefits of kale section,
para. 2) noted that “A cup full of kale can help your body out in a
number of ways.”
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
The following rules for handling works by a single author or
multiple authors apply to all APA-style references in your
reference list, regardless of the type of work (book, article,
electronic resource, etc.).

SINGLE AUTHOR
Last name first, followed by author initials.

Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development.

Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 7-10.

TWO AUTHORS
List by their last names and initials. Use the ampersand instead
of "and."

Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Mood management across

affective states: The hedonic contingency hypothesis. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 1034-1048.
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
THREE TO SEVEN AUTHORS
List by last names and initials; commas separate author names,
while the last author name is preceded again by ampersand.

Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., Harlow, T., &
Bach, J. S. (1993). There's more to self-esteem than whether it
is high or low: The importance of stability of self-esteem.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1190-1204.

MORE THAN SEVEN AUTHORS

List by last names and initials; commas separate author names.
After the sixth author's name, use an ellipsis in place of the
author names. Then provide the final author name. There
should be no more than seven names.

Miller, F. H., Choi, M. J., Angeli, L. L., Harland, A. A., Stamos, J.

A., Thomas, S. T., . . . Rubin, L. H. (2009). Web site usability for
the blind and low-vision user. Technical Communication, 57,
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
ORGANIZATION AS AUTHOR
Also known as a "corporate author." Here, you simply treat the
publishing organization the same way you'd treat the author's
name and format the rest of the citation as normal.

American Psychological Association. (2009). Blog guidelines.

APA Style Blog. Retrieved from
https://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/blog-guidelines.html

UNKNOWN AUTHOR
Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993).
Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
TWO OR MORE WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR
Use the author's name for all entries and list the entries by the
year (earliest comes first).

Berndt, T. J. (1981).

Berndt, T. J. (1999).

When an author appears both as a sole author and, in another

citation, as the first author of a group, list the one-author
entries first.

Berndt, T. J. (1999). Friends' influence on students' adjustment

to school. Educational Psychologist, 34, 15-28.

Berndt, T. J., & Keefe, K. (1995). Friends' influence on

adolescents' adjustment to school. Child Development, 66,
1312-1329.
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
References that have the same first author and different second
and/or third authors are arranged alphabetically by the last
name of the second author, or the last name of the third if the
first and second authors are the same.

Wegener, D. T., Kerr, N. L., Fleming, M. A., & Petty, R. E. (2000).

Flexible corrections of juror judgments: Implications for jury
instructions. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 6, 629-654.

Wegener, D. T., Petty, R. E., & Klein, D. J. (1994). Effects of mood

on high elaboration attitude change: The mediating role of
likelihood judgments. European Journal of Social Psychology,
24, 25-43.
 2.6: APA citation and Referencing
TWO OR MORE WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR IN THE SAME
YEAR
If you are using more than one reference by the same author
(or the same group of authors listed in the same order)
published in the same year, organize them in the reference list
alphabetically by the title of the article or chapter. Then assign
letter suffixes to the year. Refer to these sources in your essay
as they appear in your reference list, e.g.: "Berdnt (1981a)
makes similar claims..."

Berndt, T. J. (1981a). Age changes and changes over time in

prosocial intentions and behavior between friends.
Developmental Psychology, 17, 408-416.

Berndt, T. J. (1981b). Effects of friendship on prosocial

intentions and behavior. Child Development, 52, 636-643.
Thank you for participating
Thank you for participating