WAVE OPTICS - I

1. Wavefront

2. Huygens’ Principle

3. Reflection of Light based on Huygens’ Principle

4. Refraction of Light based on Huygens’ Principle

5. Behaviour of Wavefront in a Mirror, Lens and Prism

6. Coherent Sources

7. Interference

8. Young’s Double Slit Experiment

Wavefront:
A wavelet is the point of disturbance due to propagation of light.
A wavefront is the locus of points (wavelets) having the same phase of
oscillations.
A line perpendicular to a wavefront is called a ‘ray’.

Spherical Cylindrical
Wavefront Wavefront
from a point • from a linear
source source

Plane Pink Dots – Wavelets

Wavefront Blue Envelope– Wavefront
Red Line – Ray
Huygens’ Construction or Huygens’ Principle of Secondary
Wavelets:

. . .
. .
. .
S• . .
. .
. . New
. .
New Wavefront
(Spherical) . Wave-
front
. (Plane)
(Wavelets - Red dots on the wavefront)

1. Each point on a wavefront acts as a fresh source of disturbance of light.

2. The new wavefront at any time later is obtained by taking the forward
envelope of all the secondary wavelets at that time.
Note: Backward wavefront is rejected. Why?
Amplitude of secondary wavelet is proportional to ½ (1+cosθ). Obviously,
for the backward wavelet θ = 180° and (1+cosθ) is 0.
 Reflection of wavefronts using Huygen’s Principle:

c = Speed of light
Q N S
t = time taken by the wavefront to N
advance from B to C Hence BC = ct
By the time disturbance reaches C P B D R
from B, sec. wavelets from A reach
point D. i r
X i r
To construct the reflected wavefront a Y
sphere of radius ct is drawn from point A C
A,such that AD = BC=ct.
The tangential plane CD is the reflected AB – Incident wavefront
wavefront.
CD – Reflected wavefront
In ∆ ABD and ∆ ADC
XY – Reflecting surface
angle (ABC) = angle (ADC) (each 90º)
AC = AC (common) Since the incident ray PA, the normal NA and reflected ray
AD = BC (each ct) AD are respectively perpendicular to the incident wavefront
AB, the reflecting surface XY and the reflected wavefront
Hence ∆ ABD & ∆ ADC are congruent.
CD(all of which are perpendicular to the plane of the
So i = r (1st law of reflection proved) paper), therefore they all lie in the same plane. This proves
the second law of reflection.
Refraction of wavefronts using Huygens’ Principle:
Case I: Rarer to denser medium Q
* Wavefront first strikes at point A, then N N
at successive points towards C. P
B Rarer
*Acc to Huygen’s Principle, from each
point on AC, secondary wavelets start c, n1
i
growing in denser medium with speed
X i C
v. r Y
A Denser
*BC = ct G v, n2
r r
by the time wavefront reaches from B D
to C, the secondary wavelets reach at D
from A such that AD= vt
Tangent plane CD gives new refracted
wavefront. AB – Incident wavefront
CD – Refracted wavefront
From rt ∆ ABC, Sin i = = …i
XY – Refracting surface
From rt ∆ ADC, Sin r = = …ii
From i and ii we get Since the incident ray PA, the normal NA and
refracted ray AD are respectively perpendicular to
the incident wavefront AB, the interface of two media
XY and the refracted wavefront CD(all of which are
perpendicular to the plane of the paper),therefore
sin i
Hence,Snell’s c refraction is proved.
law of they all lie in the same plane that is in the plane of
= =
sin r v the paper. This proves the second law of refraction .
 Case II : Refraction from denser to rarer medium

*Theory is exactly
same as Case I :
refraction from rarer
to denser medium.
Behaviour of a Plane Wavefront in a Concave Mirror, Convex Lens,
and Prism:
A
A C
C

D B
D
B
Concave Mirror Prism

A
C

D
B
Convex Lens

AB – Incident wavefront CD – Reflected / Refracted wavefront

 DOPPLER’S EFFECT FOR LIGHT WAVES :
The apparent change in the frequency of light received by observer whenever there is a
relative motion between the observer and the source of light is called as Doppler’s effect.
The fractional change in frequency is given by = ; = the component of source velocity
along the line joining the observer to the relative to the observer.
• The formula is valid only when the speed of the source is small as compared to that
of light.
• RED SHIFT : waves received from the source moving away from the observer
apparent increase in the wavelength or apparent decrease in the
frequency, hence red shift.
• BLUE SHIFT: waves received from the source moving towards the observer
apparent decrease in the wavelength or apparent increase in the
frequency, hence blue shift.

Coherent Sources:

Coherent Sources of light are those sources of light which emit light waves of same
wavelength, same frequency and in same phase or having constant phase difference.

Coherent sources can be produced by following methods:

1. By division of wavefront e.g in Young’s Double Slit Experiment,the two sources and
get light from same source S. If any phase change occurs in automatically leads to
same phase change in . So, both act as coherent sources.
2. Using Lloyd’s Mirror, a source and it’s reflected image act as coherent sources.
Conditions to obtain two coherent sources :
1) The two sources of light must be obtained from single parent
source.
2) The two sources must give monochromatic light.
3) The path difference between the waves arriving on the screen
from the two sources must not be large (should not exceed 30cm)

Two independent sources cannot be independent. Why ?

• Even the tiniest source of light consists of millions of
atoms which emit light independent of each other.
• A single atom emits an unbroken wave for about seconds
due to its transition from high energy state to lower energy
state.
• So the millions of atoms of same source can’t emit light
waves in same phase.in fact, the light emitted from the
ordinary source undergoes abrupt phase change almost
times in 1second. Thus, the light waves coming out of from
two independent sources of light will not have any fixed
phase relationship and would be incoherent.
Interference of Waves:
Y1 + Y2 Bright Band
Y1

Dark Band
Y2 S1 •
Bright Band
S2 •
Dark Band
Constructive Interference Y = Y1 + Y2
Y1

Y 1- Y 2 Bright Band
Y2

Crest
Destructive Interference Y = Y1 - Y2 Trough
Bright Band
1st Wave (Y1) Dark Band
2nd Wave
The phenomenon in which two light waves of the same
(Y2) Resultant
frequency and having zero or constant phase
Wave difference travelling in the same direction superpose
Reference Line each other, the intensity in the region of superposition
gets redistributed, becoming maximum at some points
and minimum at others is called interference of light.
Theory of Interference of two harmonic monochromatic waves
Let the displacement due to individual waves be :
t
= A cos(t +)
Applying principle of superposition, the resultant displacement will be given by:
y = + = t + A cos(t +) = A []
=2A cos (/2) cos /2)
The resultant amplitude, A’ = 2A cos (/2)
Now, intensity of a wave (A)² …………………(i)
Also the resultant intensity I (A’²) or I = 4A²cos² ……………(ii)
from (i) and (ii) we get :

I = 4 cos²

CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

*Leads to maximum intensity *Leads to minimum intensity
= 0 , if = (2n+1)
= 4 , if = n
or = 2n+1)
or = 2n where n = 0,1,2,3,4,…….
where n = 0,1,2,3,4,……. i.e. =, …..
i.e. =…..
Corresponding path difference is
Corresponding path difference is p = (λ / 2 π) x { (2n+1)π} = (2n+1)
p = (λ / 2 π) x 2nπ = n λ p = , 3 ,, …….
p = 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ…….
(ALTERNATE METHOD) Theory of Interference of Waves:
The waves are with same speed, wavelength, frequency,
y1 = sin ωt
time period, nearly equal amplitudes, travelling in the
y2 = sin (ωt + Φ) same direction with constant phase difference of Φ.
ω is the angular frequency of the waves, , are the
amplitudes and y1, y2 are the instantaneous values of
displacement of the waves.
Applying superposition principle, the magnitude of the resultant displacement
of the waves is y = y1 + y2
y = sin ωt + sin(ωt+Φ)
y =(+ cos Φ) sinωt + sinΦcosωt
Putting + cos Φ = A cos θ (where y is the resultant displacement, A is
the resultant amplitude and θ is the
sin Φ = A sin θ resultant phase difference)
We get y = A sin (ωt + θ)
A =√ (2+2 +2cos Φ) Intensity
I=kA² ; =k2 ; = k2
or equation(i) can be written as
A² = (2+2 +2cos Φ) kA²=k2+k2+2k)+k)coΦ
or
………………(i)
I= + +2 ) cos Φ
 A = √(2+2 +2cos Φ)

Intensity I is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave.

So, I α A2 i.e. I α (2+2 +2cos Φ)
Condition for Constructive Interference of Waves:
For constructive interference, I should be maximum which is possible
only if cos Φ = +1.
i.e. Φ = 2nπ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …….

Corresponding path difference is p = (λ / 2 π) x 2nπ

p=nλ Imaxα(+)2

Condition for Destructive Interference of Waves:

For destructive interference, I should be minimum which is possible

only if cos Φ = - 1.

i.e. Φ = (2n + 1)π where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …….

Corresponding path difference is ∆ = (λ / 2 π) x (2n + 1)π

∆ = (2n + 1) λ / 2 Iminα()2
Comparison of intensities of maxima and minima:

Imax α(+)2

Imin α ()2

Imax (+)2 (/ + 1)2

= =
Imin () 2 (/ - 1)2

Imax (r + 1)2
= where r = / (ratio of the amplitudes)
Imin (r - 1) 2

Relation between Intensity (I), Amplitude (a) of the wave and

Width (w) of the slit:

I α a2
a α √w I1 (a1)2 w1
= =
I2 (a2) 2
w2
Young’s Double Slit Experiment:

S •
Single Slit Double Slit
P

S1
x Screen
d/2
S • N
d
d/2
O
S2
D

The waves from S1 and S2 reach the point P with

some phase difference and hence path difference
S2N = S2P – S1P
S2P2 – S1P2 = [D2 + {x + (d/2)}2] - [D2 + {x - (d/2)}2]

(S2P – S1P) (S2P + S1P) = 2 xd S2N (2D) = 2 xd S2N = xd / D

Positions of Bright Fringes: Positions of Dark Fringes:
For a bright fringe at P, For a dark fringe at P,
S2N = xd / D = nλ S2N = xd / D = (2n+1)λ/2
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …

x=nDλ/d x = (2n+1) D λ / 2d
For n = 0, x0 = 0 For n = 0, x0’ = D λ / 2d
For n = 1, x1 = D λ / d For n = 1, x1’ = 3D λ / 2d
For n = 2, x2 = 2 D λ / d …… For n = 2, x2’ = 5D λ / 2d …..
For n = n, xn = n D λ / d For n = n, xn’ = (2n+1)D λ / 2d

Expression for Dark Fringe Width: Expression for Bright Fringe Width:
βD = xn – xn-1 βB = xn’ – xn-1’
= n D λ / d – (n – 1) D λ / d = (2n+1) D λ / 2d – {2(n-1)+1} D λ / 2d
=Dλ/d =Dλ/d

The expressions for fringe width show that the fringes are equally spaced on
the screen.
 Distribution of Intensity:
Intensity Suppose the two interfering waves
have same amplitude say ‘a’, then
Imax α (a+a)2 i.e. Imax α 4a2
All the bright fringes have this same
intensity.
Imin = 0
All the dark fringes have zero
intensity.
SUSTAINED INTERFERENCE :
The interference pattern, in which the positions of maxima and minima of intensity on the
observation screen do not change with time, is called sustained interference pattern.

Conditions for sustained interference:

1. The two sources producing interference must be coherent.
2. The two interfering wave trains must have the same plane of polarisation.
3. The two sources must be very close to each other and the pattern must be observed at a
larger distance to have sufficient width of the fringe. (D λ / d)
4. The sources must be monochromatic. Otherwise, the fringes of different colours will
overlap.
5. The two waves must be having same amplitude for better contrast between bright and dark
fringes.
Why coherent sources are required for sustained interference ?

If the two sources are not coherent then, they will not maintain a constant phase
difference. As a result of this the phase difference changes very rapidly with time
and the positions of maxima-minima will also vary rapidly with time. Hence a
time averaged intensity distribution is observed on the screen,
The average value of intensity is given by:

<I > = <4 cos² > = 4 <cos² > = 4 = 2

This shows that the resultant intensity will be 2 at all the points on the screen
that is the intensities simply add up to cause general illumination on the screen.
Hence, interference pattern will not be observed.