1

Compiler Design
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Preliminaries Required
• Basic knowledge of programming languages.

• Basic knowledge of FSA and CFG.

• Knowledge of a high programming language for the

programming assignments.

Textbook:
Alfred V. Aho, Ravi Sethi, and Jeffrey D. Ullman,
“Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools”
Addison-Wesley, 1986.
 3

Course Outline
• Introduction to Compiling

• Lexical Analysis

• Syntax Analysis

• Context Free Grammars

• Top-Down Parsing, LL Parsing

• Bottom-Up Parsing, LR Parsing

• Syntax-Directed Translation

• Attribute Definitions

• Evaluation of Attribute Definitions

• Semantic Analysis, Type Checking

• Run-Time Organization

• Intermediate Code Generation

• Code Optimization

• Code Generation
 4

Compiler - Introduction
• A compiler is a program that can read a program in one language - the

source language - and translate it into an equivalent program in

another language - the target language.
• A compiler acts as a translator, transforming human-oriented
programming languages into computer-oriented machine languages.
• Ignore machine-dependent details for programmer
 5

COMPILERS
• A compiler is a program takes a program written in a

source language and translates it into an equivalent

program in a target language.

source program COMPILER target program

( Normally a program written in ( Normally the equivalent program in

a high-level programming language) machine code – relocatable object file)

error messages
Compiler vs Interpreter
• An interpreter is another common kind of language
processor. Instead of producing a target program as a
translation, an interpreter appears to directly execute
the operations specified in the source program on
inputs supplied by the user

• The machine-language target program produced by a

compiler is usually much faster than an interpreter at
mapping inputs to outputs .
• An interpreter, however, can usually give better error
diagnostics than a compiler, because it executes the source
program statement by statement 6
 7

Compiler Applications
• Machine Code Generation
– Convert source language program to machine understandable one
– Takes care of semantics of varied constructs of source language
– Considers limitations and specific features of target machine
– Automata theory helps in syntactic checks
– valid and invalid programs
– Compilation also generate code for syntactically correct programs
 8

Other Applications
• In addition to the development of a compiler, the techniques used in compiler

design can be applicable to many problems in computer science.

• Techniques used in a lexical analyzer can be used in text editors, information

retrieval system, and pattern recognition programs.

• Techniques used in a parser can be used in a query processing system such as

SQL.
• Many software having a complex front-end may need techniques used in

compiler design.
• A symbolic equation solver which takes an equation as input. That

program should parse the given input equation.

• Most of the techniques used in compiler design can be used in Natural

Language Processing (NLP) systems.

 9

Major Parts of Compilers

• There are two major parts of a compiler: Analysis and

Synthesis
• In analysis phase, an intermediate representation is created

from the given source program.

• Lexical Analyzer, Syntax Analyzer and Semantic Analyzer are the parts of this

phase.

• In synthesis phase, the equivalent target program is created

from this intermediate representation.

• Intermediate Code Generator, Code Generator, and Code Optimizer are the

parts of this phase.

Structure of a Compiler

• Breaks the source program into pieces and

Analysis fit into a

grammatical structure
• If this part detect any syntactically ill
formed or semantically unsound error it is
report to the user
• It collect the information about the source
program and stored in a data structure –
Symbol Table

Synthesis • Construct the target program from the

available symbol table and intermediate
representation

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Phases of A Compiler

Source Lexical Syntax Semantic Intermediate Code Code Target

Program Analyzer Analyzer Analyzer Code Generator Optimizer Generator Program

• Each phase transforms the source program from one representation

into another representation.

• They communicate with error handlers.

• They communicate with the symbol table.

 13

Lexical Analyzer
• Lexical Analyzer reads the source program character by character and returns
the tokens of the source program.
• A token describes a pattern of characters having same meaning in the source
program. (such as identifiers, operators, keywords, numbers, delimeters and so
on)
Ex: newval := oldval + 12 => tokens: newval identifier
:= assignment
operator
oldval identifier
+ add operator
12 a number

• Puts information about identifiers into the symbol table.

• Regular expressions are used to describe tokens (lexical constructs).
• A (Deterministic) Finite State Automaton can be used in the implementation of a
lexical analyzer.
Phases of Compiler-Lexical
Analysis
• It is also called as scanning

• This phase scans the source code as a stream of characters and converts it
into meaningful lexemes.
• For each lexeme, the lexical analyzer produces as output a token of the
form
• It passes on to the subsequent phase, syntax analysis .
This points to an entry in the
symbol table for this token.
It is an abstract Information from the symbol-
symbol that is <token-name, table
used during entry 'is needed for semantic
attribute-value> analysis and code generation
syntax analysis

14
 15

Lexical Analysis
 16

Lexical Analysis
• Lexical analysis breaks up a program into tokens
• Grouping characters into non-separatable units (tokens)
• Changing a stream to characters to a stream of tokens
 17

Token , Pattern and Lexeme

• Token: Token is a sequence of characters that can
be treated as a single logical entity. Typical tokens are, 1)
Identifiers 2) keywords 3) operators 4) special symbols
5)constants
• Pattern: A set of strings in the input for which the same

token is produced as output. This set of strings is

described by a rule called a pattern associated with the
token.
• Lexeme: A lexeme is a sequence of characters in the
source program that is matched by the pattern for a
token.
 18

Phases of Compiler-Symbol
Table Management
• Symbol table is a data structure holding information about all symbols defined in the

source program

• Not part of the final code, however used as reference by all phases of a compiler

• Typical information stored there include name, type, size, relative offset of variables
• Generally created by lexical analyzer and syntax analyzer
• Good data structures needed to minimize searching time
• The data structure may be flat or hierarchical
 19

A Syntax Analyzer creates the syntactic

Syntax
structure (generally a parse tree) of the
given program.
A syntax analyzer is also called as a parser.
A parse tree describes a syntactic structure

Analysis •In a parse tree, all terminals are at leaves.

• All inner nodes are non-terminals in

a context free grammar
 20

Phases of Compiler-Syntax
Analysis
• This is the second phase, it is also called as parsing

• It takes the token produced by lexical analysis as input and generates a parse tree (or

syntax tree).

• In this phase, token arrangements are checked against the source code grammar, i.e.
the parser checks if the expression made by the tokens is syntactically correct.
 21

Syntax Analyzer (CFG)

• The syntax of a language is specified by a context free grammar (CFG).

• The rules in a CFG are mostly recursive.

• A syntax analyzer checks whether a given program satisfies the rules implied by

a CFG or not.
• If it satisfies, the syntax analyzer creates a parse tree for the given program.

• Ex: We use BNF (Backus Naur Form) to specify a CFG

assgstmt -> identifier := expression

expression -> identifier
expression -> number
expression -> expression + expression
 22

Parsing Techniques
• Depending on how the parse tree is created, there are different parsing techniques.

• These parsing techniques are categorized into two groups:

• Top-Down Parsing,

• Bottom-Up Parsing

• Top-Down Parsing:

• Construction of the parse tree starts at the root, and proceeds towards the leaves.

• Efficient top-down parsers can be easily constructed by hand.

• Recursive Predictive Parsing, Non-Recursive Predictive Parsing (LL Parsing).

• Bottom-Up Parsing:

• Construction of the parse tree starts at the leaves, and proceeds towards the root.

• Normally efficient bottom-up parsers are created with the help of some software tools.

• Bottom-up parsing is also known as shift-reduce parsing.

• Operator-Precedence Parsing – simple, restrictive, easy to implement

• LR Parsing – much general form of shift-reduce parsing, LR, SLR, LALR

 23

Syntax Analyzer versus Lexical Analyzer

• Which constructs of a program should be recognized by the

lexical analyzer, and which ones by the syntax analyzer?

• Both of them do similar things; But the lexical analyzer deals with simple

non-recursive constructs of the language.

• The syntax analyzer deals with recursive constructs of the language.

• The lexical analyzer simplifies the job of the syntax analyzer.

• The lexical analyzer recognizes the smallest meaningful units (tokens) in a

source program.
• The syntax analyzer works on the smallest meaningful units (tokens) in a

source program to recognize meaningful structures in our programming

language.
 24

Semantic
Analysis
 25

Phases of Compiler-Semantic
Analysis
• Semantic analysis checks whether the parse tree constructed follows the rules

of language.

• The semantic analyzer uses the syntax tree and the information in the symbol

table to check the source program for semantic consistency with the language
definition.
• It also gathers type information and saves it in either the syntax tree or the
symbol table, for subsequent use during intermediate-code generation.
• An important part of semantic analysis is type checking
 26

Phases of Compiler-Semantic
Analysis
• Suppose that position, initial, and rate have been declared to be floating-
point numbers and that the lexeme 60 by itself forms an integer.

• The type checker in the semantic analyzer discovers that the operator

* is applied to a floating-point number rate and an integer 60.

• In this case, the integer may be converted into a floating-point number.

 27

Intermediate Code
Generation
 28

Phases of Compiler-Intermediate
Code Generation
• After semantic analysis the compiler generates an intermediate code of the

source code for the target machine.

• It represents a program for some abstract machine.
• It is in between the high-level language and the machine language.

• This intermediate code should be generated in such a way that it makes it

easier to be translated into the target machine code.

• A compiler may produce an explicit intermediate codes representing the

source program.
• These intermediate codes are generally machine (architecture
independent). But the level of intermediate codes is close to the level of
machine codes
 29

Phases of Compiler-Intermediate
Code Generation
• An intermediate form called three-address code were used

• It consists of a sequence of assembly-like instructions with three

operands per instruction. Each operand can act like a register.

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Code
Optimization
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Phases of Compiler-Code
Optimization
• The next phase does code optimization of the intermediate code.

• Optimization can be assumed as something that removes unnecessary

code lines, and arranges the sequence of statements in order to speed up

the program execution without wasting resources (CPU, memory).
 32

Code
Generation
 33

Phases of Compiler-Code
Generation
• In this phase, the code generator takes the optimized representation of the

intermediate code and maps it to the target machine language.

• If the target language is machine code, registers or memory locations are

selected for each of the variables used by the program.

• Then, the intermediate instructions are translated into sequences of
machine instructions that perform the same task.
• Produces the target language in a specific architecture.

• The target program is normally is a relocatable object file containing the

machine codes
 34

Phases of Compiler-Code
Generation
• For example, using registers R1 and R2, the intermediate code
might get translated into the machine code
• The first operand of each instruction specifies a destination. The F
in each instruction tells us that it deals with floating-point
numbers.
 35

Phases of Compiler-Translation of
assignment statement
 36

Cousins of Compiler- Language

Processing System
Preprocess
or
• Pre-processors produce input to compilers
• The functions performed are:
• Macro processing - allows user to define macros
• File inclusion - include header files into the program
• Rational pre-processors - It augment older languages with
more modern flow-of-control and data structuring facilities
• Language extension - It attempt to add capabilities to the
language by what
amounts to built-in macros. (embed query in C)

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Assembler

• Assembly code is a mnemonic version of machine code, in which names are used instead of
binary codes for operation
MOV a,R1
ADD #2,R1
MOV R1,b

• Some compiler produce assembly code , which will be passed to an assembler for further
processing
• Some other compiler perform the job of assembler, producing relocatable machine code which will
be passed directly to the loader/link editor

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8
Two-Pass
Assembler
• This is the simplest form of assembler

• In First pass, all the identifiers that denote storage

location are found and stored in a symbol table.
Let consider b=a+2

Identifier Address

a 0
b 4

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Loader/Link
editor
• Loading – It Loads the relocatable machine code to the
proper location
• Link editor allows us to make a single program from
several files of relocatable machine code

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Compiler Construction Tool

 42

Role of a Lexical Analyzer

• Role of lexical analyzer

• Specification of tokens

• Recognition of tokens

• Lexical analyzer generator

• Finite automata

• Design of lexical analyzer generator

 43

The role of lexical analyzer

token
Source To semantic
Lexical Analyzer Parser
program analysis
getNextToken

Symbol
table
 44

Why to separate Lexical analysis and parsing

1. Simplicity of design
2. Improving compiler efficiency
3. Enhancing compiler portability
 45

Lexical Analyzer
• Lexical Analyzer reads the source program character by character to

produce tokens.
• Normally a lexical analyzer doesn’t return a list of tokens at one shot,

it returns a token when the parser asks a token from it.

source Lexical token

program Parser
Analyze get next token
r
 46

Lexical errors
• Some errors are out of power of lexical analyzer to

recognize:
• fi (a == f(x)) …

• However it may be able to recognize errors like:

• d = 2r

• Such errors are recognized when no pattern for tokens

matches a character sequence

 47

Error recovery
• Panic mode: successive characters are ignored until we

reach to a well formed token

• Delete one character from the remaining input

• Insert a missing character into the remaining input

• Replace a character by another character

• Transpose two adjacent characters

 48

Token
• Token represents a set of strings described by a pattern.

• Identifier represents a set of strings which start with a letter continues with letters and

digits
• The actual string (newval) is called as lexeme.

• Tokens: identifier, number, addop, delimeter, …

• Since a token can represent more than one lexeme, additional information should be held

for that specific lexeme. This additional information is called as the attribute of the token.
• For simplicity, a token may have a single attribute which holds the required information

for that token.

• For identifiers, this attribute a pointer to the symbol table, and the symbol table holds

the actual attributes for that token.

 49

Token
• Some attributes:

• <id,attr> where attr is pointer to the symbol table

• <assgop,_> no attribute is needed (if there is only one assignment operator)
• <num,val> where val is the actual value of the number.
• Token type and its attribute uniquely identifies a lexeme.

• Regular expressions are widely used to specify patterns.

 50

Tokens, Patterns and Lexemes

• A token is a pair a token name and an optional token value

• A pattern is a description of the form that the lexemes of a

token may take

• A lexeme is a sequence of characters in the source program

that matches the pattern for a token

 51

Example

Token Informal description Sample lexemes

if Characters i, f if
else Characters e, l, s, e else
comparison < or > or <= or >= or == or != <=, !=

id Letter followed by letter and digits pi, score, D2

number Any numeric constant 3.14159, 0, 6.02e23
literal Anything but “ sorrounded by “ “core dumped”

printf(“total = %d\n”, score);

 52

Terminology of Languages
• Alphabet : a finite set of symbols (ASCII characters)

• String :

• Finite sequence of symbols on an alphabet

• Sentence and word are also used in terms of string

•  is the empty string

• |s| is the length of string s.

• Language: sets of strings over some fixed alphabet

•  the empty set is a language.

• {} the set containing empty string is a language

• The set of well-formed C programs is a language

• The set of all possible identifiers is a language.

 53

Terminology of Languages
• Operators on Strings:

• Concatenation: xy represents the concatenation of strings

x and y.
• s =s

• s=s

• sn = s s s .. s ( n times)

• s0 = 
 54

Input buffering
• Sometimes lexical analyzer needs to look ahead some symbols to decide

about the token to return

• In C language: we need to look after -, = or < to decide what token to

return
• In Fortran: DO 5 I = 1,25

• We need to introduce a two buffer scheme to handle large look-aheads

safely

E = M * C * * 2 eof
 55

Cont..,
 56

Cont..,
 57

Cont..,
 58

Sentinels

E = M eof * C * * 2 eof eof

Switch (*forward++) {
case eof:
if (forward is at end of first buffer) {
reload second buffer;
forward = beginning of second buffer;
}
else if {forward is at end of second buffer) {
reload first buffer;\
forward = beginning of first buffer;
}
else /* eof within a buffer marks the end of input */
terminate lexical analysis;
break;
cases for the other characters;
}
 59

Specification of tokens
• In theory of compilation regular expressions are used to

formalize the specification of tokens

• Regular expressions are means for specifying regular

languages
• Example:

• Letter_(letter_ | digit)*
• Each regular expression is a pattern specifying the form of

strings
 60

Regular expressions
• Ɛ is a regular expression, L(Ɛ) = {Ɛ}
• If a is a symbol in ∑then a is a regular expression, L(a) = {a}

• (r) | (s) is a regular expression denoting the

language L(r) ∪ L(s)

• (r)(s) is a regular expression denoting the language L(r)L(s)

• (r)* is a regular expression denoting (L(r))*

• (r) is a regular expression denoting L(r)

 61

Regular definitions

d1 -> r1
d2 -> r2
…
dn -> rn
• Example:
letter_ -> A | B | … | Z | a | b | … | z | _
digit -> 0 | 1 | … | 9
id -> letter_ (letter_ | digit)*
 62

Extensions
• One or more instances: (r)+

• Zero or one instances: r?

• Character classes: [abc]

• Example:

• letter_ -> [A-Za-z_]

• digit -> [0-9]

• id -> letter_(letter|digit)*
 63

Recognition of tokens
• Starting point is the language grammar to understand the

tokens:
stmt -> if expr then stmt
| if expr then stmt else stmt
|Ɛ
expr -> term relop term
| term
term -> id
| number
 64

Recognition of tokens (cont.)

• The next step is to formalize the patterns:
digit -> [0-9]
Digits -> digit+
number -> digit(.digits)? (E[+-]? Digit)?
letter -> [A-Za-z_]
id -> letter (letter|digit)*
If -> if
Then -> then
Else -> else
Relop -> < | > | <= | >= | = | <>

• We also need to handle whitespaces:

ws -> (blank | tab | newline)+

 65

Operations on Languages
• Concatenation:
• L1L2 = { s1s2 | s1  L1 and s2  L2 }

• Union
• L1 L2 = { s | s  L1 or s  L2 }

• Exponentiation:
• L0 = {} L1 = L L2 = LL

• Kleene Closure

• L =
*
L
i 0
i

• Positive Closure

• L+ =


L
i 1
i
 66

Example
• L1 = {a,b,c,d} L2 = {1,2}

• L1L2 = {a1,a2,b1,b2,c1,c2,d1,d2}

• L1  L2 = {a,b,c,d,1,2}

• L13 = all strings with length three (using a,b,c,d}

• L1* = all strings using letters a,b,c,d and empty string

• L1+ = doesn’t include the empty string

 67

Regular Expressions
• We use regular expressions to describe tokens of a

programming language.
• A regular expression is built up of simpler regular

expressions (using defining rules)

• Each regular expression denotes a language.

• A language denoted by a regular expression is called as a

regular set.
 68

Regular Expressions (Rules)

Regular expressions over alphabet 

Reg. Expr Language it denotes

 {}
a  {a}
(r1) | (r2) L(r1)  L(r2)
(r1) (r2) L(r1) L(r2)
(r)* (L(r))*
(r) L(r)

• (r)+ = (r)(r)*
• (r)? = (r) | 
 69

Regular Expressions (cont.)

• We may remove parentheses by using precedence rules.
• * highest
• concatenation next
• | lowest
• ab*|c means (a(b)*)|(c)

• Ex:
•  = {0,1}
• 0|1 => {0,1}
• (0|1)(0|1) => {00,01,10,11}
• 0* => { ,0,00,000,0000,....}
• (0|1)* => all strings with 0 and 1, including the empty string
 70

Regular Definitions
• To write regular expression for some languages can be difficult, because their regular expressions can

be quite complex. In those cases, we may use regular definitions.

• We can give names to regular expressions, and we can use these names as symbols to define other

regular expressions.

• A regular definition is a sequence of the definitions of the form:

d1  r1 where di is a distinct name and

d2  r2 ri is a regular expression over symbols in

. {d1,d2,...,di-1}

dn  rn
basic symbols previously defined names
 71

Regular Definitions (cont.)

• Ex: Identifiers in Pascal

letter  A | B | ... | Z | a | b | ... | z

digit  0 | 1 | ... | 9
id  letter (letter | digit ) *
• If we try to write the regular expression representing identifiers without using regular definitions,

that regular expression will be complex.

(A|...|Z|a|...|z) ( (A|...|Z|a|...|z) | (0|...|9) ) *

• Ex: Unsigned numbers in Pascal

digit  0 | 1 | ... | 9
digits  digit +
opt-fraction  ( . digits ) ?
opt-exponent  ( E (+|-)? digits ) ?
unsigned-num  digits opt-fraction opt-exponent
 72

Transition diagram – unsigned numbers

• 341

• 341.00

• 341E

• 341.10E

• 341.10E+-1
73
74
 75

Regular expressions
• Ɛ is a regular expression, L(Ɛ) = {Ɛ}
• If a is a symbol in ∑then a is a regular expression, L(a) = {a}

• (r) | (s) is a regular expression denoting the language L(r) ∪

L(s)
• (r)(s) is a regular expression denoting the language L(r)L(s)

• (r)* is a regular expression denoting (L(r))*

• (r) is a regular expression denting L(r)

 76

Regular definitions

d1 -> r1
d2 -> r2
…
dn -> rn

• Example:
letter_ -> A | B | … | Z | a | b | … | Z | _
digit -> 0 | 1 | … | 9
id -> letter_ (letter_ | digit)*
 77

Extensions
• One or more instances: (r)+

• Zero or one instances: r?

• Character classes: [abc]

• Example:

• letter_ -> [A-Za-z_]

• digit -> [0-9]

• id -> letter_(letter|digit)*
 78

Recognition of tokens
• Starting point is the language grammar to understand the

tokens:
stmt -> if expr then stmt
| if expr then stmt else stmt
|Ɛ
expr -> term relop term
| term
term -> id
| number
 79

Recognition of tokens (cont.)

• The next step is to formalize the patterns:

digit -> [0-9]

Digits -> digit+
number -> digit(.digits)? (E[+-]? Digit)?
letter -> [A-Za-z_]
id -> letter (letter|digit)*
If -> if
Then -> then
Else -> else
Relop -> < | > | <= | >= | = | <>
• We also need to handle whitespaces:

ws -> (blank | tab | newline)+

 80

Transition diagrams
• Transition diagram for relop
 81

Transition diagrams (cont.)

• Transition diagram for reserved words and identifiers
 82

Transition diagrams (cont.)

• Transition diagram for unsigned numbers
 83

Transition diagrams (cont.)

• Transition diagram for whitespace
Design of a Lexical
Analyzer (LEX)

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4
 Design of a Lexical
Analyzer
• LEX is a software tool that automatically construct a lexical
analyzer from a program
• The Lexical analyzer will be of the form
P1 {action 1}
P2 {action 2}
--
--

• Each pattern pi is a regular expression and action i is a program

fragment that is to be executed whenever a lexeme matched
by pi is found in the input
• If two or more patterns that match the longest lexeme, the first
listed matching pattern is chosen
8
5
 Design of a Lexical Analyzer
• Here the Lex compiler
constructs a transition table
for a finite automaton from
the regular expression
pattern in the Lex
specification
• The lexical analyzer itself
consists of a finite automaton
simulator that uses this
transition table to look for the
regular expression patterns in
the input buffer

8
6
 Example
Consider Lexeme
a {action A1 for pattern p1}
abb{action A2 for pattern p2}
a*b* {action A3 for pattern p3}

8
7
 LEX in use
• An input file, which we call lex.1, is
written in the Lex language and
describes the lexical analyzer to be
generated.
• The Lex compiler transforms lex. 1
to a C program, in a file that is
always named lex. yy . c.
• The latter file is compiled by the C
compiler into a file called a. out.
• The C-compiler output is a working
lexical analyzer that can take a
stream of input characters and
produce a stream of tokens.

8
8
General
format
• The declarations section includes declarations
of variables, manifest constants (identifiers
declared to stand for a constant, e.g., the
name of a token)
• The translation rules each have the form
Pattern { Action )
• Each pattern is a regular expression, which
may use the regular definitions of the
declaration section.
• The actions are fragments of code, typically
written in C, although many variants of Lex
using other languages have been created.
• The third section holds whatever additional
functions are used in the actions.

8
9
Consider the following
statement

9
0
9
1
 Lexical Analyzer Generator - Lex

Lex Source
Lexical Compiler lex.yy.c
program
lex.l

C
lex.yy.c a.out
compiler

Input a.out
Sequenc
stream e of
tokens

92
 93

Structure of Lex Generated Analyser

Lexeme

Lexeme
Forward
begin
Automaton Simulator

Lex Transition table

compiler action
Lex
program
 Finite Automata
• Regular expressions = specification
• Finite automata = implementation
• Recognizer ---A recognizer for a language is a program that takes as input
a string x answers ‘yes’ if x is a sentence of the language and ‘no’ otherwise.

• A better way to convert a regular expression to a recognizer is to construct

a generalized transition diagram from the expression. This diagram is
called a finite automaton.

• Finite Automaton can be

• Deterministic
• Non-deterministic

94
Finite Automata

• A finite automaton consists of

• An input alphabet 

• A set of states S

• A start state n

• A set of accepting states F  S

• A set of transitions state input state

5
Finite Automata
• Transition

s1  a s 2
• Is read

In state s1 on input “a” go to state s2

• If end of input

• If in accepting state => accept, otherwise => reject

• If no transition possible => reject

96
 Finite Automata State Graphs
• A state

• The start state

• An accepting state

a
• A transition

97
 98

Finite Automata
• A recognizer for a language is a program that takes a string x, and answers “yes” if x is a sentence of that

language, and “no” otherwise.

• We call the recognizer of the tokens as a finite automaton.

• A finite automaton can be: deterministic(DFA) or non-deterministic (NFA)

• This means that we may use a deterministic or non-deterministic automaton as a lexical analyzer.

• Both deterministic and non-deterministic finite automaton recognize regular sets.

• Which one?

• deterministic – faster recognizer, but it may take more space

• non-deterministic – slower, but it may take less space

• Deterministic automatons are widely used lexical analyzers.

• First, we define regular expressions for tokens; Then we convert them into a DFA to get a lexical

analyzer for our tokens.

• Algorithm1: Regular Expression  NFA  DFA (two steps: first to NFA, then to DFA)

• Algorithm2: Regular Expression  DFA (directly convert a regular expression into a DFA)
FINITE STATE AUTOMATA
• The finite automata or finite state machine is an abstract machine which have five elements or
tuple.

• It has a set of states and rules for moving from one state to another but it depends upon the applied
input symbol.

• It is an abstract model of digital computer.

• Formal specification of machine is { Q, Σ, q, F, δ }.

Q : Finite set of states.

Σ : set of Input Symbols.
q : Initial state.
F : set of Final States.
δ : Transition Function.

• Two Types: Deterministic Finite state automata (DFA); Non Deterministic Finite
State Automata (NFA)
FINITE STATE AUTOMATA (…)
Example: Consider r1={a,b} r2={0,1}

1.Union:
r1+r2={a,b,0,1} // set of alphabets or digits

2.Concatenation:
r1.r2=r1r2={a0,a1,b0,b1} //set of alphabets and digits

3. Kleen’s Closure
r1* ={Є, a, aa, aaa, aaaa, …, b, bb, bbb, …} //0 or any number of times
repeating the symbols

4. Positive Closure
r1+={a, aa, aaa, …, b, bb, bbb, …} //1 or any number of times repeating the
symbols

102
Non-Deterministic Finite Automaton
(NFA)
• A non-deterministic finite automaton (NFA) is a mathematical model that consists of:
• S - a set of states
•  - a set of input symbols (alphabet)
• move – a transition function move to map state-symbol pairs to sets of states.

• s0 - a start (initial) state

• F – a set of accepting states (final states)

• - transitions are allowed in NFAs. In other words, we can move from one state to

another one without consuming any symbol.

• A NFA accepts a string x, if and only if there is a path from the starting state to one of

accepting states such that edge labels along this path spell out x.

103
 104

Deterministic and Nondeterministic Automata

• Deterministic Finite Automata (DFA)

• One transition per input per state

• No -moves
• Nondeterministic Finite Automata (NFA)

• Can have multiple transitions for one input in a given

state
• Can have -moves
• Finite automata have finite memory

• Need only to encode the current state

A Simple Example
• A finite automaton that accepts only “1”

• A finite automaton accepts a string if we can follow transitions labeled

with the characters in the string from the start to some accepting state

105
 Another Simple Example
• A finite automaton accepting any number of 1’s followed by a single 0
• Alphabet: {0,1}

• Check that “1110” is accepted.

106
 107

Converting A Regular Expression into A NFA

(Thomson’s Construction)
• This is one way to convert a regular expression into a NFA.

• There can be other ways (much efficient) for the conversion.

• Thomson’s Construction is simple and systematic method.

It guarantees that the resulting NFA will have

exactly one final state, and one start state.
• Construction starts from simplest parts (alphabet symbols).

• To create a NFA for a complex regular expression, NFAs of

its sub-expressions are combined to create its NFA,

108
109
110
111
 112

Thomson’s Construction (cont.)


i f
• To recognize an empty string 

• To recognize a symbol a in the alphabet 

a
i f

• If N(r1) and N(r2) are NFAs for regular expressions r1 and r2

• For regular expression r1 | r2

 N(r1) 
NFA for r1 | r2
i  f

N(r2)
 113

Thomson’s Construction (cont.)

• For regular expression r1 r2

i N(r1) N(r2) f Final state of N(r2) become

final state of N(r1r2)
NFA for r1 r2

• For regular expression r*

 
i N(r) f


NFA for r*
 114

Thomson’s Construction (Example - (a|b) * a )

a a 
a: 
(a | b) 
b 
b: b

a 

 
(a|b) *  
b



a 

(a|b) * a   a
 
b


115
 116

Converting a NFA into a DFA (subset

construction)
put -closure({s0}) as an unmarked -closure({s0}) is the set of all states can b
state into the set of DFA (DS) accessible
while (there is one unmarked S1 in DS) from s0 by -transition.
do
begin set of states to which there is a transition on
mark S1 a from a state s in S1
for each input symbol a do
begin
S2  -
closure(move(S1,a))
if (S2 is not in DS) then
add S2 into DS as an
unmarked state
transfunc[S1,a]  S2
end
end
• a state S in DS is an accepting state of DFA if a state in
S is an accepting state of NFA
• the start state of DFA is -closure({s })
0
 117

Converting a NFA into a DFA (Example)

2 a 3 

0  1  a
 6 7 8

4 b 5


S0 = -closure({0}) = {0,1,2,4,7} S0 into DS as an unmarked state

 mark S0
-closure(move(S0,a)) = -closure({3,8}) = {1,2,3,4,6,7,8} = S1 S1 into DS
-closure(move(S0,b)) = -closure({5}) = {1,2,4,5,6,7} = S2 S2 into DS
transfunc[S0,a]  S1 transfunc[S0,b]  S2
 mark S1
-closure(move(S1,a)) = -closure({3,8}) = {1,2,3,4,6,7,8} = S1
-closure(move(S1,b)) = -closure({5}) = {1,2,4,5,6,7} = S2
transfunc[S1,a]  S1 transfunc[S1,b]  S2
 mark S2
-closure(move(S2,a)) = -closure({3,8}) = {1,2,3,4,6,7,8} = S1
-closure(move(S2,b)) = -closure({5}) = {1,2,4,5,6,7} = S2
transfunc[S2,a]  S1 transfunc[S2,b]  S2
 118

Converting a NFA into a DFA (Example –

cont.)
S0 is the start state of DFA since 0 is a member of S 0={0,1,2,4,7}
S1 is an accepting state of DFA since 8 is a member of S1 = {1,2,3,4,6,7,8}

S1

S0 b a

S2

b
119
120
121
NFA

122
NFA

123
Transition Table

124