MET-O

Meteorology and Oceanography

Bachelor of Science in Marine Transportation

 MET-O

Meteorology and Oceanography

 At the end of the COURSE
the students will be able to:

CO1.
COURSE Forecast weather
conditions in a
outcome particular area for a
determined period
based on all available
information to
maintain the safety of
 At the end of the lesson the
students will be able to:
LO1.1. Understand the basic
principles of meteorology and
oceanography.

Learning LO1.2. Recognize the different

meteorological instruments and their
outcome functions.

s LO1.3. Grasp the foundational

knowledge of tides and ocean
currents.

LO1.4. Calculate the tidal condition

of a specified secondary port with
the use of a Standard/secondary
 1 Introduction to Meteorology and Oceanography
CONT
ENTS
2 Meteorological Instruments and Their Uses

3 Basics of Tides and Ocean Currents

4 Tides and Tidal Calculation

WEEK
2
Meteorolo
gical
Instrumen
ts and
Their Uses
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their Uses
Weather Instruments & Their Uses
Meteorologists use a wide variety of different
instruments to measure weather conditions, but
many of these weather instruments fall into
relatively common, overarching categories.
Thermometers, for instance, come in traditional
liquid-in-glass forms and newer electronic forms,
but both measure temperature in Celsius and
Fahrenheit. Other instruments measure aspects
of weather like rainfall, pressure, humidity, wind
direction, and wind speed. These instruments and
measurements allow meteorologists to make
predictions on weather conditions in the near
future.
 2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their Uses
Weather Instruments & Their Uses
Weather stations are strategically positioned
collections of many instruments. The provide crucial
information for meteorology and weather forecasting.
Stations often have many types of weather
instruments that are all chosen to provide an accurate
and expansive survey of the current weather
conditions. To provide even more real time
measurements hundreds of weather balloons are
launched across the world every day; they float
thousands of feet into the atmosphere carrying
meteorological instruments to measure wind
conditions, air temperature, and pressure in the sky.
Because weather is so complicated, it helps to have as much data from very
different altitudes and locations.
 2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their Uses
Daily Temperatures
A thermometer measures the high and low
outdoor temperatures in degrees
Fahrenheit and degrees Celsius.
Meteorologists first used liquid-in-glass
thermometers in the late 1800s, but they
now use electronic maximum-minimum
temperature sensor systems more
frequently. The newer systems use an
electronic temperature sensor to measure
and record high and low temperatures.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their Uses
Atmospheric Pressure
Barometers measure atmospheric pressure
(sometimes also called barometric pressure),
providing the measurement in millibars. Under
most conditions, high and rising pressure
indicates sunny weather, while low and falling
pressure indicates approaching rainy storms.
The traditional aneroid barometer first appeared
in the 1840s. The micro-barograph also
measures air pressure but records its continuous
measurements on paper. There are many
varieties of digital barometers and more analog
measurement tools to measure atmospheric
pressure.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
Humidity Uses
Sensors
Hygrometers measure temperature
and humidity using degrees Celsius
and degrees Fahrenheit. One type of
hygrometer, called a sling
psychrometer, uses one dry and one
wet bulb thermometer to measure the
relative humidity, or amount of water
vapor, of the air. Some older
hygrometers used a sheaf of hair,
which increases in length as relative
humidity increases.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Wind Their
Speed Uses
Anemometers measure the direction
and speed of wind in miles per hour. A
common type of anemometer has three
cups fixed to a mobile shaft. As the
wind blows faster, the cups spin around
faster. The actual speed of the wind
shows up on a dial. Another type of
anemometer uses a propeller instead
of cups to accomplish the same
function.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Wind Their
Vane Uses
A wind vane, also called a
wind-sock, measures the
direction of the wind at any
given point in time. A
weighted arrow spins
around a fixed shaft and
points north, south, east or
west, typically marked on
separate fixed shafts
parallel to the arrow.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their Uses
Rain Gauge
A rain gauge measures the amount of
rainfall. The standard rain gauge consists
of a long, narrow cylinder capable of
measuring rainfall up to 8 inches. Many
rain gauges measure precipitation in
millimeters, or to the nearest 100th of an
inch. Other gauges collect the rain and
weigh it, later converting this
measurement into inches. There are also
snow gauges designed to accurately
measure snowfall.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their Uses
Hail Pad
Hail pads measure the size
of hail that falls during a
storm. A standard hail pad
consists of florist's foam
and aluminum foil. The
falling hail strikes the foil
and creates dimples for the
observer to measure after
the storm.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
Campbell Uses
Stokes Recorder
The Campbell Stokes Recorder
measures sunshine. Sunlight
shines into one side of a glass
ball and leaves through the
opposite side in a concentrated
ray. This ray of light burns a
mark onto a thick piece of card.
The extensiveness of the burn
mark indicates how many hours
the sun shone during that day.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Tools Their
Used inUses
Meteorology
Before the 1600s, knowledge of the Earth's
atmosphere and weather was not exact.
People mostly relied on experience with local
weather events for forecasts. Aunt Sally could
smell a snowstorm coming, and Uncle Jim's
knee told of impending rain. Then simple
devices, such as thermometers, barometers
and weather-vanes, were invented that gave
recordable data.
As technology advanced from the 1800s onward, more sophisticated
equipment allowed detection of regional and global weather patterns,
and modern radar, satellites and computer modeling programs allow
long-term weather predictions.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their Equipment
Temperature Uses
Glass thermometers filled with either alcohol or mercury are
standard equipment for measuring air, soil and water
temperatures. Maximum and minimum temperature
thermometers register the lowest and highest temperatures
during a specific time period. The resistance temperature
detector determines air temperatures based on changes in
electrical resistance of specific metals due to temperature
and gives a digital readout. Preferred for automatic weather
stations, RTDs can supply a temperature reading every
second.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their Uses
Atmospheric Pressure and Wind
Barometers measure atmospheric pressure. Liquid
barometers usually measure mercury contained within an
evacuated tube, and the mercury level changes as
atmospheric pressure increases or decreases. Aneroid
barometers contain a fixed volume of air sealed within a unit
equipped with a flexible membrane. As the membrane
expands and contracts with changes caused by atmospheric
pressure conditions, an attached needle points to the correct
reading. Wind anemometers measure the direction and
speed of wind. They usually incorporate a weather-vane tail
and a fan to measure speed.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
Moisture Uses
Indicators
There are several tools that measure humidity, or the
percentage of water in air. The earliest was the hygrometer,
which depends on a human hair expanding and contracting in
response to humidity changes. The psychrometer detects the
difference in temperature between a dry and a wet
thermometer bulb to measure humidity. Other instruments
include the electrical hygrometer, the dew-point hygrometer,
the infrared hygrometer and the dew cell. Rain gauges
measure rainfall, and snow gauges measure snowfall.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
Weather Uses
Balloons
Weather balloons measure humidity, air pressure,
temperature, wind speed and direction with units called
radiosondes. Launched from 1,100 sites around the world
twice a day, they rise to over 20 miles above the Earth,
recording as they travel and transmitting the information back
to meteorologists by radio waves. When the balloon bursts,
the radiosonde parachutes back to Earth for recycling.
Weather balloons give a vertical snapshot of atmospheric
conditions in a given area.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
High-Tech Uses
Tools
With the invention of radar in World War II, meteorological studies vastly
improved. Conventional radar, Doppler radar and dual-polarization radar
detect storm systems, their direction, speed, intensity and type of
precipitation. Meteorological satellites orbiting the Earth began transmitting
in 1962 and led to more complicated satellites. Geostationary Operational
Environmental Satellites transmit photographic images of the Western
Hemisphere every 15 minutes. Polar Operational Environmental Satellites
take about 1.5 hours to orbit the Earth, providing information about
weather, oceans and volcanic eruptions. Computer analysis of weather
data and computer modeling of weather systems make long-term weather
prediction on a global scale increasingly more accurate.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
TypesTheir Uses
of Old-Fashioned Weather Instruments
Greek philosophers Aristotle and his pupil
Theophrastus showed interest in weather
phenomena more than three centuries before
the start of the Common Era (CE). However,
measuring tools and instruments were needed
for the study of weather as a science,
meteorology, to flourish. Functional weather
instruments began with Galileo's invention of a
rudimentary thermometer in the late 1500s.
Many old-fashioned instruments continue to be
used in private settings and small weather
stations.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their Uses
Anemometers
Italian architect Leone Battista Alberti (1404-1472) is credited with
inventing the first useful anemometer, an instrument to measure wind
speed. Alberti's anemometer used a swinging-plate; the angle at
which the plate was displaced by the force of wind determined wind
speed. In 1846, Irish astronomer Thomas Romney Robinson
developed the rotating-cup anemometer that is still used in small
weather stations. Robinson's old-fashioned anemometer uses four
cups attached to a vertical rod at right angles. As the wind rotates the
cups, the speed of the turns is converted to wind speed.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their Uses
Barometers
The barometer, an instrument for measuring air pressure, was
invented by Italian mathematician and physicist Evangelista Torricelli
in 1643. Using observation of how a siphon works, Torricelli used a
mercury-filled tube to determine atmospheric pressure at sea level. In
an old-fashioned mercury barometer, the weight of the atmosphere
forces mercury up a calibrated tube. The heavier the air, the more
pressure exerted on the mercury.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their Uses
Hair Hygrometer
Water-absorbing properties of hair were used in 1783 to develop the
first hygrometer, an instrument for measuring humidity. This old-
fashioned hygrometer was calibrated by first determining the length of
a hair at total dehydration and at total saturation, or 0 percent
humidity and 100 percent humidity, respectively. Relative humidity
then could be calculated by using these two set points.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Sling Their Uses
Psychrometer
As an instrument for measuring humidity, the sling psychrometer
came into use during the 19th century. This old-fashioned weather
instrument used two identical mercury thermometers mounted on a
wooden paddle. The bulb of one of the thermometers is wrapped in
wet absorbent materials. A person then whirls (slings) the handle
around through the air and the thermometer with the wet bulb cools
rapidly compared to the other due to evaporation properties of water.
The temperature difference between the two thermometers can then
be converted to relative humidity.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their Uses
Thermometers
Galileo's thermometer measured heat by observing the changes in
the density of water in glass-filled bulbs. This method of liquid in a
sealed glass bulb or tube was used to design and develop a number
of old-fashioned instruments that work on the principle of the changes
in water when heated and cooled to measure temperature changes.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
Different Uses
Types of Anemometers

An anemometer is a device for measuring the force or

speed of the wind. This instrument has been around since
at least 1450. Many different types of anemometers are on
the market, each with unique characteristics. Some of the
devices measure more than just wind speed. Some people
for fun build their own anometers -- that's something you
might want to try as well.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
Different Uses
Types of Anemometers

Cup
The cup or rotational anemometer is one of the oldest types
of anemometers. The cups are placed onto a vertical axis,
and when the wind presses against them, this causes the
cups to rotate around. The faster the cups rotate, the faster
the wind speed. Cup anemometers usually have digital
readouts. Researchers, educational institutions and
meteorologists worldwide use this type of anemometer for
research and commercial activities.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
Different Uses
Types of Anemometers
Hot Wire
Hot wire or thermal flow anemometers measure both the
wind speed and pressure. The device is a long rod and at
the tip is a hot wire or hot bead. The anemometer is placed
into a location and as wind moves over the hot wire, the
wire is cooled. A direct relationship exists between the rate
at which the wind is flowing and how cool the wire
becomes. You can find this type of anemometer in the
heating, ventilating and air-conditioning businesses -- it
measures the airflow through building ducts.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
Different Uses
Types of Anemometers
Windmill
The windmill anemometer measures both wind speed and
direction. The anemometer has a propeller located at the
front of the device and a large tail section. As the wind
blows, it presses against the propeller, making it spin. The
rotational speed of the propeller indicates how fast the wind
is moving at any time.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
Different Uses
Types of Anemometers
Pressure Tube
A pressure tube anemometer is called a wind-sock. These
devices are found around airports. Material is made into a
tube shape and is connected to wires. As the wind blows, it
catches the larger end of the tube. This anemometer
provides wind direction because the larger end of the sock
will move into the wind. The faster the wind blows, the
higher the tube raises off the ground. Pressure tubes do not
provide readouts but are relative measurements of wind
speed.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
Different Uses
Types of Anemometers
Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic anemometers send sonic pulses across a path to
a sensor on the opposite side. As the wind moves more
quickly, the pulses are disrupted. A measurement of this
disruption provides accurate wind data. An ultrasonic
anemometer has no moving parts and can detect even
small changes in the wind. The device typically has four
sensors arranged in a square pattern. Some units come
with built-in heaters.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
Different Uses
Types of Anemometers
Laser Doppler
Laser Doppler anemometers utilize the Doppler effect to
determine the flow of air. Commonly used for high-tech
applications such as in jet engines, the laser Doppler can
measure even the slightest changes in airflow. This type of
anemometer is also used in river hydrology.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
What Their Uses
Units Do Barometers Measure In?
A barometer is an instrument used to measure air pressure
and track weather systems. The most common unit of
measurement used in barometers is the millibar (mb).
2 Meteorological Instruments and
What Their Uses
Units Do Barometers Measure In?
Fact
A millibar is a form of metric measurement, with one millibar equaling
one one-thousandth of a bar or 100 pascals, which is equivalent to
one newton per square meter.
Use
Millibars are used to measure atmospheric pressure or altitude.
Normal atmospheric pressure measures 1,013.2 millibars.
Features
The two types of barometers are mercury and aneroid. In a mercury
barometer, millibars measure how high the mercury column climbs a
vertical glass tube. Aneroid barometers don’t use liquid of any kind,
instead employing a flexible-walled evacuated capsule.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
What Their Uses
Units Do Barometers Measure In?
Types
Aside from millibars, other units of measure used in barometers
include pounds per square inch, pascals and inches of mercury.
Function
A highly sensitive unit of measurement, one millibar indicates a
change of one tenth of one percent in the atmospheric pressure.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
TypesTheir Uses
of Hygrometers
Hygrometers are instruments that measure
humidity, or the amount of water vapor in the air.
These devices are essential for weather
measurement and forecasting, and for maintaining
optimal storage conditions for moisture-sensitive
materials.
Using a hygrometer to measure humidity levels
inside your home can help you decide whether
you need a dehumidifier. High levels of water
vapor can promote mold growth and food spoilage
and may cause serious problems for people who
have allergies.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
TypesTheir Uses
of Hygrometers
Psychrometers
This type of hygrometer uses two thermometers to measure humidity through evaporation.
One is a wet-bulb thermometer and one is a dry-bulb thermometer. To measure relative
humidity, the user wraps a wet cloth around the base of the wet-bulb thermometer.
Whirling the device, or blowing air across the bulbs, causes the water in the wet cloth to
evaporate, cooling the thermometer. The amount and rate of cooling depends on the
amount of water in the air.
By noting the difference in temperature between the two thermometers, and referring to a
standard chart, it's possible to calculate relative humidity.
A similar device called a hygrodeik includes a nomograph, which is a chart with a movable
needle. The nomograph notes the two different temperatures, and the needle moves to
the chart's corresponding temperature coordinates as evaporation proceeds. The needle's
final position on the graph shows the relative humidity.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
TypesTheir Uses
of Hygrometers
Electrical Hygrometers
These hygrometers contain a semiconductor, which usually
comprises a thin layer of lithium chloride. The
semiconductor measures the change in electrical
resistance as the amount of water vapor in the air
changes. Humidors and other storage areas are often
equipped with electrical hygrometers, in order to maintain
humidity at the correct level and prevent excess water
vapor from ruining sensitive materials.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
TypesTheir Uses
of Hygrometers
Dew-Point Hygrometers
Dew-point hygrometers measure humidity with a polished metal mirror that
cools at a constant air pressure and water vapor content until moisture begins
to condense on the surface. The temperature at which condensation forms is
called the dew point. Meteorologists use the dew point to predict weather
conditions associated with high humidity, like fog, snow, mist and rain. These
conditions are most likely to occur when the dew point is identical to the air
temperature.
Dew point gives a better overall picture of atmospheric water saturation than
relative humidity, which depends on the temperature of the air, and changes
when the air temperature changes. By contrast, the dew point temperature
provides an absolute measurement of how much moisture is actually present in
the air.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
TypesTheir
of RainUses
Gauges
Rainfall is measured at thousands of weather stations across the United States
using various types of rain gauges. These vary in complexity from simple
measuring cylinders to sophisticated optical detectors. The simplest kind has
been used at U.S. weather offices for more than 100 years.

Measuring Cylinder Rain Gauge

The simplest and most widely used rain gauges simply consist of a large
cylinder, a funnel and a plastic measuring tube. As rain falls to the ground, it is
collected by the funnel and travels to the plastic measuring tube. The amount of
rain collected within a day can be read off the measuring tube. The 8-inch
Standard Rain Gauge, or SRG, is based upon this simple water-collection
system and has been used in weather offices for more than 100 years.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
TypesTheir
of RainUses
Gauges
Tipping-Bucket Rain Gauge
The tipping-bucket rain gauge consists of a funnel within a cylinder located
above a pair of buckets that are balanced about a horizontal axis. Rain enters
the funnel, pours into the cylinder and drains into the bucket. When a certain
amount of water has been collected, the bucket tips and causes the second
bucket to quickly move into position to collect rain. The buckets typically tip over
after collecting 0.01 inches (0.03 centimeters) of rain. Each time this occurs, an
electronic signal is sent to a computer. Monitors can count the number of
electrical signals to estimate total precipitation within a given time.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
TypesTheir
of RainUses
Gauges
Weighing Rain Gauge
A weighing rain gauge consists of cylinder that is placed upon an electronic
scale. As water enters the cylinder, the weight increases and provides an
indirect measure of rainfall. The electronic scales are either connected to a
chart that traces rainfall over time or a computer that logs the data. The weight
of water can be easily converted to inches of rainfall by using the density of
water and the dimensions of the measuring cylinder.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
TypesTheir
of RainUses
Gauges
Optical Rain Gauge
Optical rain gauges consists of a light source, such as a laser, and an optical
detector. As rain drops fall through the gap between the laser and optical
detector, the amount of light hitting the optical detector is reduced. The variation
in light intensity upon the optical detector is proportional to rainfall. Optical rain
gauges were developed in the late 1990s and are relatively expensive.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
What Their Uses
Units Does the Anemometer Measure In?
An anemometer measures the pressure
and force of the wind. There are several
different types of anemometers: cup or
propeller anemometers electronically
measure the wind by counting the
revolutions per minute; ultrasonic or laser
anemometers detect light that is reflected
from lasers off air molecules; hot wire
anemometers detect wind speed through
temperature differences between wires
placed in the wind and away from the wind.
The most common is the cup anemometer.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
What Their Uses
Units Does the Anemometer Measure In?
Measurement
The anemometer measures in feet per minute, or FPM. The rotation is sensed
by a magnetic or optical sensor that converts the signal to FPM measurement.
FPM
An arrow on the vane head identifies the direction the airflow must travel
through the vane to obtain proper measurements. An average measurement
range for anemometers is 50 feet to 6,000 feet per minute. One thousand feet
per minute is equal to about 11 miles per hour.
Uses of Anemometers
Anemometers can be used in weather stations, airports, on ships, oil rigs or for
personal use. Most anemometers are attached to wind vanes to detect wind
direction.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
What Their Uses
Units Does the Anemometer Measure In?
Air Readings
Readings of airflow measurement are in actual feet of air, meaning the
measurement is taken at the height where the anemometer is located. This
measurement results in actual feet per minute. Anemometers are placed on the
roofs of houses or on top of towers that can be 20 to 50 feet tall. High elevations
may give higher wind-speed readings.
Accuracy
Accuracy of the readings can be affected by the angle of the vane and minimum
air velocity needed to rotate the vane. Factors that can affect wind source are
elevation, nearby landforms such as valleys or mountains, and trees or
buildings that may block wind. Anemometers near mountains, valleys or
canyons may have increased wind flow.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
How Does Uses
a Psychrometer Work?
A psychrometer is a device used to measure the humidity of
air. It accomplishes this by comparing the difference in
temperature between a dry thermometer bulb and a wet
thermometer bulb that has lost some of its moisture through
evaporation.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
How Does Uses
a Psychrometer Work?
Using a Psychrometer
A psychrometer is an old-fashioned type of hygrometer, which is a device for
measuring humidity. It consists of two thermometer bulbs: a wet bulb and a dry
bulb. The dry bulb measures the ambient air temperature in the same manner
as any household thermometer. The wet bulb is covered with a cloth, usually
cotton, that needs to be moistened with water before use.
Once the wet bulb is ready, the scientist either swings the psychrometer or lets
it stay still, depending on the design of the device, until the wet bulb has cooled
to its final temperature. Then, by knowing the difference between the wet and
dry temperatures and the atmospheric pressure in her location, she can
determine the humidity of the air.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
How Does Uses
a Psychrometer Work?
The amount of evaporative cooling on the wet bulb of the
psychrometer is directly dependent on the amount of moisture
in the air. Drier air absorbs more moisture from the bulb, in
turn cooling it off more. Wetter air cannot absorb as much
water from the bulb, so the temperature doesn't change as
much. In other words, the smaller the change in the wet bulb
temperature, the more humid the air.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
How Does Uses
a Psychrometer Work?
The first psychrometers appeared in the 1600s. While the design of these
devices hasn't changed much, today digital versions are also available. A digital
device can display many details about atmospheric conditions at once, including
humidity, air temperature, surface temperature and dew point. However, these
devices need 20 to 30 minutes to calibrate to local conditions before use, and
the wet bulb sensor can dry out after not being used for extended periods.
Therefore, the good old fashioned manual psychrometer hasn't lost its appeal,
despite requiring a bit more legwork on the part of the user. After reading both
bulb temperatures, they must refer to a psychrometric chart for the final
humidity reading.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their Uses
Psychrometric Charts
Psychrometric charts allow a scientist to look up the intersection of the dry bulb
and wet bulb temperatures from the psychrometer to learn about the air's
thermal properties. This information includes:
 Relative humidity: How close the air is to a more desirable humidity.
 Dew point: The temperatures at which the moisture present in the air will
start to condense.
 Enthalpy: How much heat the air contains in units of BTU per pound of dry
air.
 Humidity ratio: Pounds of moisture in the air per pounds of dry air.
 Specific volume: How much space the air takes up.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
Who Uses Uses
Psychrometers?
Although psychrometers are somewhat old-fashioned today, they are still
occasionally used to calibrate humidistats, which control the internal humidity of
building air conditioning and heating systems. In the past, psychrometers were
used in designing building ventilation systems.
Psychrometers also have been used historically in various science disciplines,
and students today may learn how to use these tools and interpret
psychrometric charts, even if they are no longer the go-to method of data
collection. Meteorologists or environmental scientists, for example, may learn to
use psychrometers to measure atmospheric conditions, as might agricultural
engineers who are designing spaces with specific humidity needs, such as
greenhouses or barns for livestock.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
How to Read Uses
a Digital Barometer
The barometer is one of the earliest
reliable instruments for weather
prediction. The device reads changes in
air pressure. Generally speaking, falling
pressure means bad weather, although
more specific readings are made possible
by using the published studies of local
observed conditions. The oldest
barometers were analog instruments
using containers of water, but modern
ones are often electronic with digital read-
outs.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
How to Read Uses
a Digital Barometer
Determine the wind direction. This is best done with an established weather-
vane, but if you do not have one, lick a finger and stick it in the air. The sun
rises in the east and sets in the west, and you can use this to establish your
general orientation and determine the wind direction.
Check the pressure reading on your barometer. This will be a number between
28 and 32.
Take the wind and pressure reading and compare it to your guide to local
weather patterns. This will yield a prediction. For example, in the US if the wind
is southeast to northeast, and the pressure is above 30.1 and falling slowly, that
means there should be rain coming, and that it will arrive in 12 to 18 hours.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
TheirofUses
The History Wind Vanes
Prior to the introduction of modern technologies, early
man had few ways to determine which way the wind blew.
For centuries, wind vanes served as a simple means of
detecting wind speed and direction, making them a critical
tool for shipping, travel, agriculture and weather
prediction. Today these wind vanes serve a largely
decorative function, evoking a rich sense of history while
still acting as a practical tool for those who need to track
the wind.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Wind Their Uses
Vane Overview
The weather-vane should be positioned at the highest
point on a building and should be situated as far as
possible from nearby structures that could interfere with
its operation. These devices consist of a rotating
horizontal arrow or other structure mounted on a
stationary vertical rod. As the wind blows, the horizontal
member rotates to indicate both the direction and the
speed of the wind. The lightest and smallest portion of the
horizontal member, such as the arrowhead, points into the
wind.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
Earliest WindUses
Vanes
Greek astronomer Andronicus created the first recorded
weather-vane around 48 B.C. It sat atop the Tower of the
Winds in Athens and was designed as a tribute to Triton.
Built from bronze, the weather-vane featured the head
and torso of a man and the tail of a fish. A wand held in
Triton's hand indicated wind direction. During this period,
wealthy Greek and Romans adorned their homes with
wind vanes in the shape of the ancient Gods.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
TheirWeathervane
9th Century Uses and Wind Vanes
Starting in the ninth century, Scandinavians began to use wind vanes
on ships and church roofs. Scandinavian units were shaped like a
quarter-circle and rotated around a vertical axis. They were often
positioned at the front of Viking ships, and many were adorned with
animals or other designs.
The ninth century also brought about the use of the rooster-shaped
weather-vane found on many historic churches. According to
Smithsonian Magazine, Pope Nicholas I decreed that every church
should be topped with a cock-shaped wind vane as a reminder of the
biblical prophecy referencing Peter's betrayal of Jesus.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
Medieval Uses
Europe
During the Middle Ages, public buildings in Europe were
typically adorned with weather-vanes that took the shape of
an arrow or pennant. The word vane comes from "fane," a
term that means "flag." During this period, archers used
fabric flags to help gauge wind speed and direction from the
weathervane. These flags helped to inspire weather-vane
designs for many years.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
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American Uses
Designs
The first maker of weathervane and wind vanes in North America was Shem
Drowne, who manufactured weather-vanes during the early 1700s. He designed
the famous grasshopper vane that once sat atop Boston's Faneuil Hall in 1742,
along with many other well-known vanes of the period.
To commemorate the Revolutionary War, George Washington commissioned a
dove of peace weather-vane to sit atop his home. By the 1800s, patriotic wind
vane designs were quite common, and many were mass-produced. The late 19th
century ushered in a Victorian style of design, and weather-vanes became much
more-ornate and grand.
By the 20th century, these units took on a largely decorative function, with many
inspired by sports or nature.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
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World's Uses
Largest Wind Vanes
The world's largest functional wind vane can be found in Montague,
Michigan. It measures 14.6 meters (48 feet) tall with an arrow
measuring 7.9 meters (26 feet) long. It features a traditional arrow
shape with a decorative ship on top.
A less traditional plus-sized wind vane can be found at Whitehorse in
the Yukon. It's made from a retired CF-CPY airplane that's so,
perfectly balanced, it takes a wind speed of just 2.6 meters per
second (5 knots) to rotate the plane. The nose of this plane points
into the direction of the wind, just like smaller, more traditional wind
vanes.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their That
Instruments Uses Are Used to Predict Weather
When planning future outdoor activities such as
weddings, gardening or a vacation, many people
check on the weather outlook by reviewing their local
meteorologist's predictions either online or by watching
their daily news broadcast. Meteorologists form their
predictions based on information gathered by various
scientific instruments such as thermometers,
barometers and hygrometers.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their Uses
Thermometer
Temperature changes forecast weather events. Thermometers
measure the changes in the temperature by using a liquid such as
mercury or alcohol, normally colored red. When this liquid gets hotter
it expands, and when it cools it retracts, thus the recognizable form of
a thin red or silver line going up or down the thermometer. Some
thermometers, called spring thermometers, measure the expansion
and retraction of metal to measure the temperature. Thermometers
measure the temperature in three different scales: Fahrenheit, Celsius
and Kelvin, a scale normally used by scientists. The thermometer's
origins trace back to Galileo who used a device he called a
"thermoscope."
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their Uses
Barometer
First developed by the Italian scientist Evangelista Torricelli in the 17th century,
the barometer measures the atmospheric pressure, which helps meteorologists
predict weather patterns. These slight changes in the atmosphere's pressure
usually foreshadow changes in the weather. Barometers either use mercury or
small metallic strips to show the changes in pressure. A mercury barometer, which
is based on Toricelli's experiments, places a small amount of mercury in a
vacuum. This mercury moves up or down depending on whether the atmospheric
pressure weighs more or less than the mercury's own weight. Aneroid
barometers, common in households, follow the expansion and retraction of two
metallic strips as the atmospheric pressure changes.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their Uses
Hygrometer
To test the humidity in the atmosphere, which helps forecast weather patterns,
meteorologists use a hygrometer. Hygrometers use either a small metal coil, a
liquid or a condensation to measure the humidity. When moisture touches the coil,
it changes its physical shape. Condensation or "dew point" hygrometers measure
the amount of condensation that appears on a small bulb. Finally, liquid
hygrometers base their measurements on the chemical changes in the liquid due
to the moisture in the air. A psychrometer, a fourth version of the hygrometer,
uses thermodynamic properties by comparing a dry bulb and a bulb saturated
with distilled water to measure the moisture. The Swiss physicist and geologist
Horace Benedict de Saussure built the first hygrometer in 1783 and used a
human hair as the coil.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
TheirFacts
Interesting UsesAbout Anemometers
Before a plane takes off, or a skydiver leaps into the abyss, someone uses an
anemometer. Anemometers are devices used by meteorologists to measure wind
speed. Anemometers are also used to measure wind pressure, a different
phenomenon than wind speed.

Leon Battista Alberti

The first mechanical anemometer was invented in 1450 by Leon Battista Alberti,
an Italian architect. The design was a rotating disk. Leonardo Da Vinci was called
the inaugurator of the Renaissance, but Alberti was called its prophet.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
TheirFacts
Interesting UsesAbout Anemometers
The Cup Anemometer
Anemometers come in many forms, from spinning disks to digital. The simplest
form in common use is the cup anemometer, which catches the wind with rotating
cups, usually four. Cup anemometers are still used for wind, power performance
evaluations and site calibrations.

Thomas Romney Robinson

The first four-cup anemometer was invented by Irish scientist Thomas Romney
Robinson in 1850. He published his first scientific article when he was 13 years
old. His last written work was "Philosophical Transactions," published 75 years
later. He was 57 when he invented the cup anemometer.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
TheirFacts
Interesting UsesAbout Anemometers
Anemometer Versatility
Anemometers are not only used by meteorologists. Various industries use them to
measure gas streams, do aeronautics testing and to check ventilation. The
Revegetation Research Project at Kahoolawe Island, Hawaii, uses anemometers
to determine the effects of wind on vegetation. Highstown, New Jersey's Peddie
School uses anemometers with its "Principia Project" to teach students about
physics. Ships need special anemometers to measure both wind speed and
"apparent" wind speed.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
Weather Uses
Instruments

Barometer
Used to measure atmospheric pressure.

Barograph
Used to and record atmospheric pressure.

Standard Atmospheric Pressure: 14.7 psi, 29.92 inches of Mercury or 1013.2

millibars.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
Weather Uses
Instruments

Mercurial Barometer
Invented by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643. Measures atmospheric pressure by
balancing the weight of a column of Mercury.

Aneroid Barometer
Measures atmospheric pressure by means of the force exerted by the pressure
on a partly evacuated, thin-metal element called a sylphon cell (aneroid capsule).
2 Meteorological Instruments and
TheirofUses
Adjustment Barometer readings:
1. Instrument Error: Any inaccuracy due to imperfection or incorrect adjustment
of the instrument can be determined by comparison with precision instrument.

2. Height Error: The atmospheric reading at the height of the barometer called
station pressure and is subject to a height correction in order to make it a sea
pressure level. Applied to both Mercurial and Aneroid barometer readings.

3. Gravity Error: Mercurial barometers are calibrated for standard sea-level

gravity at Lat. 45° 32’ 40”. Does not apply to readings of Aneroid barometer.

4. Temperature Error: Barometers are calibrated at a standard temperature of

32°F. To be applied to readings of Mercurial barometer only.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
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Weather Uses
Instruments

Wind Vane
Measures the wind direction.

Anemometer
Measures wind speed.

True or Actual Wind: Wind relative to a fixed point on the earth.

Apparent or Relative Wind: Wind relative to a moving point.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
Weather Uses
Instruments
Temperature is the intensity or degree of heat. It is measured in degrees.

Thermometer is an instrument used to measure temperature.

Thermograph is an instrument used to measure and record temperature.

Fahrenheit (F) Pure water freezes at 32° and boils at 212°.

Celsius (C) Pure water freezes at 0° and boils at 100° Absolute Zero is
considered to be the lowest possible temperature, at which there is no molecular
motion and a body has no heat.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their Uses
Conversion:
°C = (°F - 32°) / 1.8
°F = (°C x 1.8) + 32°
°K = °C + 273.15 K or Kelvin
°C = °K – 273.15
A temperature of -40° is the same by either Celsius or Fahrenheit scale.
Humidity is the condition of the atmosphere with reference to its water vapor
content.
Relative Humidity is the ratio of the pressure of water vapor present in the
atmosphere to the saturation vapor pressure at the same temperature.
Dew Point is the temperature at which saturation takes place, and any further
cooling results in condensation of some of the moisture.
Note: As air temperature decreases, relative humidity increases.
2 Meteorological Instruments and
Their
Weather Uses
Instruments
Hygrometer is an instrument used to measure relative humidity and dew point.
Psychrometer is the most common type of Hygrometer.
To find relative humidity and dew point:
Example. The dry-bulb temperature is 65°F and the wet-bulb temperature is 61°F.
Find the relative humidity and dew point.
Solution:
Dry-bulb temp.: 65°F
Wet-bulb temp.: 61°F
Difference: 4°
Entering Table 16, Relative Humidity is 80%.
Entering Table 17, Dew point is 58°F.