Regulation 2021

III Year – VI Semester

CEC348- REMOTE SENSING
 CEC348 REMOTE SENSING
UNIT I REMOTE SENSING AND ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION 9
Definition – components of RS – History of Remote Sensing – Merits and demerits of Data Collation between conventional
and remote sensing methods - Electromagnetic Spectrum – Radiation principles - Wave theory, Planck‘s law, Wien’s
Displacement Law, Stefan’s Boltzmann law, Kirchoff‘s law – Radiation sources: active & passive – Radiation Quantities.
UNIT II EMR INTERACTION WITH ATMOSPHERE AND EARTH MATERIAL 9
Standard atmospheric profile – main atmospheric regions and its characteristics – interaction of radiation with atmosphere –
Scattering, absorption and refraction – Atmospheric windows – Energy balance equation – Specular and diffuse reflectors –
Spectral reflectance & emittance– Spectroradiometer – Spectral Signature concepts – Typical spectral reflectance curves for
vegetation, soil and water – solid surface scattering in microwave region.
UNIT III ORBITS AND PLATFORMS 9
Motions of planets and satellites – Newton ‘s law of gravitation – Gravitational field and potential - Escape velocity - Kepler
‘s law of planetary motion - Orbit elements and types – Orbital perturbations and maneuvers – Types of remote sensing
platforms - Ground based, Air borne platforms and Space borne platforms – Classification of satellites – Sun synchronous and
Geosynchronous satellites – Legrange Orbit.
UNIT IV SENSING TECHNIQUES 9
Classification of remote sensors – Resolution concept: spatial, spectral, radiometric and temporal resolutions - Scanners -
Along and across track scanners – Optical-infrared sensors – Thermal sensors – microwave sensors – Calibration of sensors –
High Resolution Sensors - LIDAR, UAV – Orbital and sensor characteristics of live Indian earth observation satellites.
UNIT V DATA PRODUCTS AND INTERPRETATION 9
Photographic and digital products – Types, levels and open-source satellite data products – selection and procurement of data
– Visual interpretation: basic elements and interpretation keys - Digital interpretation – Concepts of Image rectification, Image
enhancement and Image classification.
UNIT I REMOTE SENSING AND ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Definition

• Remote sensing is the process of detecting and monitoring the

physical characteristics of an area by measuring its reflected and
emitted radiation at a distance (typically from satellite or aircraft).
• The principles of remote sensing involve detection and measurement
of the radiations of different wavelengths which are reflected or
emitted from the surface of distant objects or materials, which helps in
their identification and categorization.
Application,advantages and disadvantages of remote sensing

Applications

Military applications
Surveillance
Combat support
Target monitoring
National security
UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle) imagery processing
Local governments
Imagery as the background of city and county maps
Data for environmental assessment
Planning and development support
Engineering project support
Change monitoring
State and federal institutions
Natural resources management
Change monitoring
Social infrastructure management
Physical environment monitoring
Transportation
Mapping
Private sector applications
Energy
Electricity
Water
Engineering
Business support
Agriculture
Advantages of remote sensing :-
1.Large area coverage: Remote sensing allows coverage of very large areas which enables regional surveys
on a variety of themes and identification of extremelylarge features.

2. Remote sensing allows repetitive coverage which comes in handy when collecting data on
dynamic themes such as water, agricultural fields and so on.

3. Remote sensing allows for easy collection of data over a variety of scales and resolutions.

4.A single image captured through remote sensing can be analyzed and interpreted for use in various
applications and purposes. There is no limitation on the extent of information that can be gathered
from a single remotely sensed image.
5.Remotely sensed data can easily be processed and analyzed fast using a computer and the data utilized
for various purposes.
Disadvantages of remote sensing :-
6.Remote sensing is a fairly expensive method of analysis especially when measuring or analyzing smaller
areas.
7.Remote sensing requires a special kind of training to analyze the images. It is therefore expensive
in the long run to use remote sensing technology since extra training must be accorded to the users of the
technology.
3.It is expensive to analyze repetitive photographs if there is need to analyze different aspects of the
photography features.
4.It is humans who select what sensor needs to be used to collect the data, specify the resolution of the data
and calibration of the sensor, select the platform that will carry the sensor and determine when the data
will be collected. Because of this, it is easier to introduce human error in this kind of analysis.
5. Powerful active remote sensing systems such as radars that emit their own electromagnetic radiation can
be intrusive and affect the phenomenon being investigated.
 Components of remote sensing

•These are the components involved in remote sensing process

1.Energy Source or Illumination (A)
2.Radiation and the Atmosphere (B)
3.Interaction with the Target (C)
4.Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D)
5.Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E)
6.Interpretation and Analysis (F)
7.Application (G)
1. Energy Source or Illumination (A)
The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy source
of electromagnetic radiation to illuminate the target. Sensors can use
either external Energy source(Sun) or have their own energy source of
illumination.
2. Energy Interactions with Atmosphere (B)
The energy travels from the source to the target, It passes through the
earth’s atmosphere which contains obstacles such as haze, clouds,
smog etc
3. Interaction with the Target (C)
The electromagnetic Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered in the
atmosphere can reach and interact with the Earth’s surface.

4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D)

When the energy has been scattered by, or emitted from the target, It
is collected through a sensor (remote – not in contact with the target)
and record the electromagnetic radiation.
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing(E)
The energy recorded by the sensor has to be transmitted, often in
electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data
are processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).

6. Interpretation and Analysis (F)

The processed image is interpreted and analyzed, visually or digitally

or electronically, to extract information about the target which was
illuminated.
7. Application (G)
Geology: it is used for geological mapping;
Hydrology: Used in monitoring wetlands and snow cover;
Agriculture: Helps in identification of type of crop , crop condition monitoring, soil moisture measurement, and soil
tillage and crop residue identification.
Forestry: Useful clear-cuts and linear features mapping, biomass estimation, species identification and fire scar
mapping;
Oceanography: sea ice identification, coastal wind field measurement, and wave slope
measurement.
Shipping: for ship detection and classification. Coastal Zone: for shoreline detection, substrate mapping, slick detection
and general vegetation mapping.
Military/Security Applications: Helps in detecting or locating metal objects.

Limitations of Remote Sensing

1. Its utility is often oversold.

2. It is not a solution that will provide all the information needed for conducting physical, biological, or a science.
3. It simply provides some spatial, spectral, and temporal information.
 History of Remote Sensing
•1860's - Aerial observations, and possible photography, for military purposes were acquired from balloons
in the Civil War.
•1887 - Germans began experiments with aerial photographs and photogrammetric techniques for
measuring features and areas in forests.
•1889 - Arthur Batut take the first aerial photograph using a kite of Labruguiere France.
•1903 – Use of pigeons to take aerial photos.
•1914 – WWI (World War I) provided a boost in the use of aerial photography, but after the war,
enthusiasm waned
•1940 - World War II brought about more sophisticated techniques in air photo interpretation.
•1960 - TIROS-1 (Television IR Observation Satellite, USA) launched as first meteorological satellite.
•1964- Nimbus Weather Satellite Program begins with the Launch of Nimbus1.
•1972 - Launch of ERTS-1 (the first Earth Resources Technology Satellite ,later renamed Landsat 1).
•1972 - Photography from Skylab, America's first space station, was used to produce land use maps.
•1975 - Landsat 2 1978 - Landsat 3
•1978 - Seasat, the first civil Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) satellite.
•1981 - Space-Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR-A)
•1982 - Landsat-4
•1984 - SIR-B
•1984 - Landsat-5
•1986 - SPOT-1
•1988 - IRS-1A
•1990 - SPOT-2
•1993 - SPOT-3
•1996 - Launch of IRS-P3
•
•1998 - Launch of SPOT-4
•
•1999 - Launch of Landsat 7,IKONOS ,IRS-P4, Terra
•2001- Quick bird
•
•2002 – Aqua, SPOT-5
•1839: Beginning of practice of photography
•
•1850-1860: Photography from balloons
•1873: Theory of electromagnetic energy developed by James Clerk Maxwell
•1909: Photography from airplanes
•1914 - 1918: World War 1: aerial reconnaissance
•1920-1930: Development & initial application of aerial photography & photogrammetry
•2003 – Oceansat 2 2012 – RISAT 1
Merits and demerits of Data Collation between conventional and
remote sensing methods
• Conventional techniques provide detailed data for small areas but are
slow, while remote sensing provides generalized data quickly over
large areas
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
•The electromagnetic spectrum (EMS) includes wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation ranging from short wavelength
(high frequency) gamma rays to long-wavelength (low frequency) radiowaves.
•We will focus on the region of the spectrum starting in the ultraviolet and continuing through the microwave
wavelengths.
•Optical sensors are used to measure ultraviolet, visible, and infrared wavelengths and microwave sensors are used for
the microwave portion of the EMS.
•A fundamental physical principal that remote sensing relies on is that different features on the Earth‫׳‬s surface
interact with specific wavelengths of the EMS in different ways.
•When working with optical sensors the most important property used to identify features on the Earth‫׳‬s surface
is spectral reflectance; the ratio of the intensity of light reflected from a surface divided by the intensity of incident
light.
Different features have different spectral reflectance properties and we can use this information to identify individual
features. For example, white sand reflects most visible and near-infrared light whereas green vegetation absorbs most red
wavelengths and reflects most near- infrared wavelengths.
•Figure 1 illustrates the spectral properties of different materials.
 The electromagnetic spectrum is the term used to describe the entire range of light that exists (Fig. 1). For
geological applications, shorter wavelengths are generally useful for site characterization down to the mineralogical
scale, while longer wavelengths reveal larger scale surface information, e.g. regional thermal anomalies, surface roughness,
etc.
The electromagnetic spectrum can be divided into several wavelength (frequency) regions, among which only
a narrow band from about 400 to 700 nm is visible to the human eyes. Note that there is no sharp boundary between
these regions. The boundaries shown in the above figures are approximate and there are overlaps between two
adjacent regions.

• Radio Waves: 10 cm to 10 km wavelength.

• Wavelength units: 1 mm = 1000 µm; 1 µm = 1000 nm.
• Microwaves: 1 mm to 1 m wavelength. The microwaves are further divided into different frequency (wavelength)
bands: (1 GHz = 109 Hz)
• P band: 0.3 - 1 GHz (30 - 100 cm)
• L band: 1 - 2 GHz (15 - 30 cm)
• S band: 2 - 4 GHz (7.5 - 15 cm)
• C band: 4 - 8 GHz (3.8 - 7.5 cm)
• X band: 8 - 12.5 GHz (2.4 - 3.8 cm)
• Ku band: 12.5 - 18 GHz (1.7 - 2.4 cm)
• K band: 18 - 26.5 GHz (1.1 - 1.7 cm)
• Ka band: 26.5 - 40 GHz (0.75 - 1.1 cm)
• Infrared: 0.7 to 300 µm wavelength.

This region is further divided into the following bands:

 Near Infrared (NIR): 0.7 to 1.5 µm.

 Short Wavelength Infrared (SWIR): 1.5 to 3 µm.
 Mid Wavelength Infrared (MWIR): 3 to 8 µm.
 Long Wanelength Infrared (LWIR): 8 to 15 µm.
 Far Infrared (FIR): longer than 15 µm.

•The NIR and SWIR are also known as the Reflected Infrared, referring to the main infrared component of the solar
radiation reflected from the earth's surface. The MWIR and LWIR are the Thermal Infrared.
•Visible Light: This narrow band of electromagnetic radiation extends from about 400 nm (violet) to about 700 nm (red).
The various colour components of the visible spectrum fall roughly within the following wavelength regions:

 Red: 610 - 700 nm

 Orange: 590 - 610 nm
 Yellow: 570 - 590 nm
 Green: 500 - 570 nm
 Blue: 450 - 500 nm
 Indigo: 430 - 450 nm
 Violet: 400 - 430 nm
 Ultraviolet: 3 to 400 nm
 X-Rays and Gamma Rays
Photons
According to quantum physics, the energy of an electromagnetic wave is quantized, i.e. it can only exist in discrete amount.
The basic unit of energy for an electromagnetic wave is called a photon.
The energy E of a photon is proportional to the wave frequency f,
• E=hf
where the constant of proportionality h is the Planck's Constant, h = 6.626 x 10-34 J s.

Radiation principles:
Black Body Radiation
To stay in thermal equilibrium, a black body must emit radiation at the same rate as it absorbs, so it
must also be a good emitter of radiation, emitting electromagnetic waves of as many frequencies as it can
absorb, i.e. all the frequencies. The radiation emitted by the blackbody is known as blackbody radiation.
Characteristics of Blackbody Radiation
The characteristics of the blackbody radiation are explained with the help of the following laws:
•Wien’s displacement law
•Planck’s law

•Stefan-Boltzmann law
• Kirchoff‘s law
 Wien’s Displacement Law
Wien’s displacement law states that The blackbody radiation curve
for different temperature peaks at a wavelength is inversely
proportional to the temperature.

•Stefan-Boltzmann Law
•The Stefan-Boltzmann law explains the relationship between total energy emitted and the absolute
temperature.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law
The Stefan-Boltzmann law explains the relationship between total energy emitted and the absolute temperature.
The Wien and Stefan-Boltzmann Laws
Radiation Sources
Active sensors have their own source of light or illumination. In particular, it actively sends a pulse and
measures the backscatter reflected to the sensor.
But passive sensors measure reflected sunlight emitted from the sun. When the sun shines, passive
sensors measure this energy.
 Active sensors

When you take a picture with the flash turned on, the camera sends its own source of light. After it
illuminates the target, the camera captures the reflected light back to the camera lens.

So, cameras are active sensors when the photographer uses flash. It illuminates its target and measures
the reflected energy back to the camera.

But active remote sensing comes in many forms. For example, they can be satellites orbiting the Earth,
helicopters in the air, or anything on the ground too. Just as long as it has an active sensor.
•Passive sensors
Cameras are passive sensors when the photographer does not use the flash. Because the camera is not
sending the source of light, it uses naturally emitted light from the sun.
Radiation quantities
• This is called radiant flux, and is measured in Joules per second, or
Watts (W). In remote sensing, we are almost always interested in
measuring the intensity of radiation over a finite area (e.g. one
represented by a pixel in a satellite image).