MEASUREMENT

OF VERTICAL
DISTANCES
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Vertical Line – a line from any point on the
earth to the center of the earth.

Plumb Line – a vertical line, usually

established by a pointed metal bob hanging on
a string or cord.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Level Surface– Since earth is round, a level
surface is actually a curved surface. Although a
lake appears to have a flat surface, it follows
the curvature of the earth. A level surface is a
curved surface that at any point is
perpendicular to a plumb line.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Horizontal Line – a line perpendicular to the
vertical

Datum – at any level surface to which

elevations are referred. Mean sea level is
usually used for a datum.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Elevation – the vertical distance from a datum
to point of the earth

Vertical Control – a series of

benchmarks/other points of known elevation
established throughout an area. Also known as
basic control.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Leveling – the process of finding the
difference in elevation of points on the earth

Bench mark – a marked point of known

elevation from which other elevations may be
established
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Turning Point – a temporary point on which an
elevation has been established and which is held
while an engineer’s level is moved to a new location

Temporary Benchmark – a semi-permanent point

of known elevation. It can be flanged-bolt on fire-
hydrants, nails in the roots of trees.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Backsight – a rod reading taken on a point of
known elevation in order to establish the elevation
of the instrument line of sight.

Height of Instrument– the vertical distance from

the datum to the line of sight of the level.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Foresight – a rod reading taken on a turning point,
benchmark, temporary benchmark in order to
determine its elevation

Intermediate Foresight – a rod reading taken at

any other point where the elevation is required.
LEVELING METHODS
1.Direct/Spirit
2.Double-Rodded
3.Profile
4.Trigonometric
5.Reciprocal
6.Cross-Section
LEVELING METHODS
7. Barometric
8. Borrow-Pit
DIFFERENTIAL/SPIRIT LEVEL
Differential Leveling is the most accurate
simple direct method of determining the
difference of level between two points using an
instrument known as level with a leveling staff. A
level establishes a horizontal line of sight and the
difference in the level of the line of sight and the
point over which the leveling staff is held, is
measured through leveling staff.
DIFFERENTIAL/SPIRIT LEVEL
DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
Problem 1: Complete the differential notes shown and show
the usual arithmetic check. Determine also the height of
collimation between sta.2 and sta 3 in m.
STA BS HI FS ELEV
BM5 1.045 100.345
1 3.953 4.983
2 6.562 6.758
3 8.481 1.335
4 9.225 0.911
5 8.374 0.735
6 4.920 2.784
7 7.774 8.875
8 9.275 6.382
BM6 5.530
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (STANDARD)
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (STANDARD)

Where:
a = rod reading on A with instrument set up near A
b = rod reading on B with instrument set up near A
c = rod reading on B with instrument set up near B
d = rod reading on A with instrument set up near B
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (STANDARD)
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (STANDARD)
If the two differences in elevation are equal, the line of sight is
in adjustment. When the line of sight is inclined from the
horizontal, the error in the line of sight for the distance AB is e
or the difference between d and d’. Considering the rod
reading taken with the instrument set up near A and also near
B, the true difference in elevation between A and B for each

TDE =
set up would be.
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (STANDARD)
If DEa is not equal to Deb, the correct rod reading at A with the
instrument still set up near B is
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (STANDARD)
If DEa is not equal to Deb, the correct rod reading at A with the
instrument still set up near B is
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (STANDARD)
If DEa is not equal to Deb, the correct rod reading at B with the
instrument still set up near A is
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (STANDARD)
Problem 2: In the two-peg test of a dumpy level the following
observations were taken:
ROD READING INSTRUMENT SET INSTRUMENT SET
UP NEAR A UP NEAR B
On Point A 1.505 m 0.938 m
On Point B 2.054 m 1.449 m

a. ) What is the difference in elevation between A and B?

b. ) If the line of sight is not in adjustment, determine the
correct rod reading on A with the instrument still set up at B
c. ) Detemine the error in the line of sight.
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (STANDARD)
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (STANDARD)
Problem 3: In the two-peg test of a dumpy level the following
observations were taken:
ROD READING INSTRUMENT SET INSTRUMENT SET
UP NEAR A UP NEAR B
On Point A 1.855 m 1.790 m
On Point B 1.434 m 2.211 m

a. What is the difference in elevation between A and B?

b. If the line of sight is not in adjustment, determine the correct
rod reading on A with the instrument still set up at B for a
horizontal line of sight
c. Determine the error in the line of sight
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (ALTERNATE)
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (ALTERNATE)
Where:
a = rod reading on A with instrument set up at M
b = rod reading on B with instrument set up near M
c = rod reading on A with instrument set up near P
d = rod reading on B with instrument set up near P
c’ = Correct rod reading on A for a horizontal line of
sight
d’ = Correct rod reading on B for a horizontal line of
sight
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (ALTERNATE)
Where:
Da = horizontal distance between points A and P
Db = horizontal distance between points B and P
en = error in the reading on the near rod (held at A)
ef = error in the reading on the far rod (held at B)
I = inclination of the line of sight in the net distance
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (ALTERNATE)

The true difference in elevation between two pegs in

alternate procedure is
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (ALTERNATE)

Rod readings c and d are taken on A and B, respectively

and the difference in elevation calculated as follows
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (ALTERNATE)
If is equal to the line of sight is parallel to the axis of the
level tube, and it can be concluded that the line of sight
is horizontal. If not, is called the erroneous or false
difference in elevation, and the inclination of the line of
sight from the horizontal is
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (ALTERNATE)
By ratio and proportion, the error in reading on the far
rod at B can be determined as follows:
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (ALTERNATE)
The correct rod reading d’ at the far rod (held at B) for a
horizontal line of sight is determined by:
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (ALTERNATE)
If d is greater than d’, the line of sight is inclined upward;
if d is less than d’, it is inclined downward. Similarly,
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (ALTERNATE)
The correct rod reading c’ at the near rod (held at A) for a
horizontal line of sight is determined by:
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (ALTERNATE)
To check the computations, the difference in elevation
computed from the two corrected rod readings (c’ and
d’) should be equal to the true difference in elevation (a -
b)
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (ALTERNATE)
Problem 4: In the two-peg test of a dumpy level the following
observations were taken:

ROD READING INSTRUMENT SET INSTRUMENT SET

UP NEAR M UP NEAR P
On Point A 0.296 m 1.563 m
On Point B 0.910 m 2.140 m

Point M is equidistant from both A and B, while P is 2.50 m away

from A along the extension of line AB and 79.27 m from B
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (ALTERNATE)
a. What the true difference in elevation between points A and
B.
b. Check if the line of sight is in adjustment
c. If the instrument needs to be adjusted, determine the
following:
c.1 False difference in elevation
c.2 Inclination of the line of sight
c.3 Error in the reading on the far rod
d. With the level still set up at P, determine the rod reading on B
to which the line of sight should be adjusted.
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (ALTERNATE)
ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL (ALTERNATE)
Problem 5: The two-peg test is used to determine if the line of
sight of the telescope is parallel to the axis of the bubble tube.
A tilting level is set up halfway between points A and B and rod
readings on both points are 1.969 m and 2.161 m, respectively.
The level is then set up 3.50 m away from A along the
extension of line AB and 53.50m from B. Then the rod reading
on A and B were recorded as 1.554m and 1.728m, respectively.
Determine if the line of sight is inclined downward or upward
and the amount by which the horizontal cross hair should be
moved to adjust the line of sight.
DOUBLE-RODDED LEVELING
Problem 6: Data shown below is obtained from a double-
rodded line of levels of a certain cross-section of the proposed
Manila-Bataan Road. Determine the elevation of BM-2 and show
arithmetic check.
STA BS HI FS ELEV
BM -1 1.045 100.345
TP -1 (L) 3.953 4.983
TP–1 (H) 6.562 6.758
TP-2 (L) 8.481 1.335
TP-2 (H) 9.225 0.911
TP-3 (L) 8.374 0.735
TP-3 (H) 4.920 2.784
BM – 2 7.774 8.875
BM – 2 9.275 6.382
DOUBLE-RODDED LEVELING
Problem 6: Data shown below is obtained from a double-rodded line of
levels of a certain cross-section of the proposed Manila-Bataan Road.
Determine the elevation of BM-2 and show arithmetic check.
STA BS HI FS ELEV
BM -1 1.045 100.345
101.39
BM -1 1.045
101.39
TP -1 (L) 3.953 4.983
100.36 96.407
TP–1 (H) 6.562 6.758
101.194 94.632
TP-2 (L) 8.481 1.335
107.506 99.025
TP-2 (H) 9.225 0.911
TP-3 (L) 8.374 109.508 0.735 100.283
TP-3 (H) 4.920 115.145 2.784 106.771
BM – 2 111.644 8.875 106.724
BM – 2 6.382 106.27
105.262
PROFILE LEVELING
The process of determining differences in
elevation along a fixed line at designated
short measured intervals.
PROFILE LEVELING
Profile – a curved line which graphically portrays
the intersection of a vertical plane with the
surface of the earth showing the ground
elevation of selected critical points along a
surveyed line and horizontal distances between
these points.
PROFILE LEVELING
Stationing – a numerical designation given in
terms of horizontal distance along a profile line.

Intermediate Foresights – sight known as the

rod readings, taken at regular intervals at a point
where sudden changes in elevation occur.
PROFILE LEVELING
Full Station – points which are established along
the profile level route at uniformly measured
distances and usually taken at multiples of 100,
50, 30, 20 and 10 meters.
Plus Station – these are taken at breaks in the
ground surface slope at a critical points such as
intended locations of culverts, bridges and other
structures.
PROFILE LEVELING
Problem 7
A turning point along a profile level route
measures 126.44 m beyond station at 8 + 24.50.
Determine the stationing of this turning point. If it
is instead located at 83.45m before the given
reference station. Determine the stationing of
this turning point.
PROFILE LEVELING
Problem 8
Determine the distance between station 33 +
45.02 and station 26 + 62.75
PROFILE LEVELING
Problem 9: Complete the profile level notes.
STA BS HI FS IFS ELEV
BM -1 2.994 184.271 181.227
0 + 000 2.632 181.639
0 + 020 1.632 182.639
0 + 040 0.720 183.551
0 + 044 1.218 183.053
0 + 052 0.712 183.559
TP – 1 1.62 185.336 0.555 183.716
0 + 060 1.016 184.32
0 + 080 1.232 184.104
0 + 100 2.250 183.086
PROFILE LEVELING
Problem 10: Complete the profile level notes for the portrayed
information.
PROFILE LEVELING
Problem 10:
a. What the true difference in elevation between TP1 and TP2?
b. What is the height of collimation between TP1 & TP2?
CURVATURE AND REFRACTION
The earth’s curvature and atmospheric
refraction are taken into account in leveling
work since the measurements are made in
vertical planes and these effects all occur in
the same plane.
CURVATURE AND REFRACTION
Due to earth’s curvature, a horizontal line
departs from a level line by 0.0785 m in one
kilometer, varying as the square of the length
of the line. This expression for earth’s
curvature is based on the mean radius of the
earth which is about 6371 km.
CURVATURE AND REFRACTION
Atmospheric refraction varies with
atmospheric condition. Under ordinary
conditions, it is approximately equal to 0.0110
in one kilometer, also varying directly as the
square of the length of the line this is about
1/7 the effect of curvature of the earth.
CURVATURE AND REFRACTION
CURVATURE AND REFRACTION

where:
- the departure of a telescope to the line of sight
from a level line in meters
K – is the length of the line of sight in kilometers
0.0675 – Coefficient of refraction
CURVATURE & REFRACTION
Problem 11
Determine the combined effects of the
earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction
on sight distances of 60, 90, 120, 150 and
500 meters.
CURVATURE & REFRACTION
Problem 12
Two points, A and B are 525.850 meters apart. A level is
set up on the line between A and B and at a distance of
240.500m from A. If the rod reading on A is 3.455m and
that on B is 2.806m. Determine the difference in
elevation between the two points, taking into account
the effects of curvature and atmospheric refraction
CURVATURE & REFRACTION
Problem 13
Clent James is on shore standing close to the sea’s
water edge looks out toward the direction of the sea. If
his eyes measure 1.72m above sea level, determine
how far out to sea is his visible horizon, neglecting the
effect of waves.
CURVATURE & REFRACTION
Problem 14
Alyssa Louise standing on a beach can just see the top
of a lighthouse 24.140 km away. If her eye height above
sea level is 1.738 m. Determine the height of the
lighthouse above sea level.
CURVATURE & REFRACTION
Problem 15
Neglecting the effect of tide and waves, determine how
far out to sea a boat will be when a light on its mast 60
meters above the water disappears from the sight of
Jay who is on shore at that moment and whose eye
level is 1.583m above the water.
RECIPROCAL LEVELING
It is employed to determine the difference in
elevation between two points when it is
difficult or impossible to keep backsights and
foresights short and equal. Such condition
usually exists when running a line of levels
across wide rivers, lakes or in rugged terrain
where deep canyons and ravines are
encountered.
RECIPROCAL LEVELING
RECIPROCAL LEVELING
For the first set up at Point A

For the second set up at Point B

RECIPROCAL LEVELING
The true difference in Elevation will be the mean of the two
computed ‘difference in elevation:
RECIPROCAL LEVELING
Problem 16
In leveling across a deep and wide river, reciprocal level readings were
taken between two points X and Y, as follows:
a.) With instrument set up near X, the rod readings are 1.283 and 1.285
meters; on the distant point Y, the rod readings are 2.618, 2.619, 2.621,
2.622 meters.
b.) With instrument set up near Y, the rod readings on Y are 3.478 and
3.476 meters; on the distant point X, the rod readings are 2.143, 2.140,
2.146 and 2.144 meters.
Determine the true difference in elevation between the two points and the
elevation of Y if the known elevation of X is 290.082 meters.
RECIPROCAL LEVELING
Problem 17
In leveling across a deep and wide river, reciprocal level readings were
taken between two points A and B, as shown in the tabulation: Determine
the difference in elevation between the points and the elevation of B if A is
951.750m.
TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
Trigonometric Leveling or indirect leveling is
defined as the determination of differences in
elevation from observed vertical angles and
either horizontal or inclined distances. This
method of leveling is used extensively when
undertaking topographic surveys over rugged or
rolling terrain since it provides a rapid means of
determining vertical distances and elevation of
points
TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
From the figure:

From the figure, also:

TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
Vertical Angle can be upward (Angle of Elevation), if so the
combined effect of curvature and refraction will be added.

+
Vertical Angle can be upward (Angle of Depression), if so the
combined effect of curvature and refraction will be
subtracted.
TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING

This combined effects of curvature and refraction

can be eliminated of vertical angle observations
are made simultaneously at both ends of the line
such as at point A & point B. This method is
termed as “Reciprocal Vertical-Angle
Observation”
TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
Problem 18
A vertical angle of + 13°45’ is read to a target 1.23m
above point B. The measured inclined distance is
823.29 m and the elevation of point A is 123.65 m
above the datum. If the height of the instrument at A is
1.35 m, determine the difference in elevation between
A and B and the elevation of B, considering the effects
of curvature and atmospheric refraction.
TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
Problem 19
A vertical angle of -12°25’ is measured to the top of a
water tank from an instrument set up on a hill 585
meters away from it. The telescope of the instrument is
1.45 meter above the ground whose elevation is 462.73
m. Making due allowance for the earth’s curvature and
atmospheric refraction. Determine the elevation of the
base of the water tank if the tank is 32 meter high.
TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
Problem 20
Let A be a point of elevation 130.48m above datum and
let B and C be points of unknown elevations. By means
of an instrument set 1.22m above B, vertical angles are
observed, that to A being -14°45’ and that to C being
+8°32’. If the horizontal distance AB is 547.20m and
the horizontal distance BC is 923.95m, determine the
elevations of B and C, making due allowance for earth’s
curvature and atmospheric refraction.
THREE-WIRE LEVELING
It is a method of determining differences in
elevation wherein three horizontal hairs are
read and recorded rather than from a single
horizontal hair. This is utilized for high
precision work.
THREE-WIRE LEVELING
THREE-WIRE LEVELING
Where;
a – upper stadia hair reading
b – lower stadia hair reading
c – Horizontal cross – hair reading or rod reading on P
s – stadia intercept (difference between upper and lower
hair reading)
m – mean of the three-hair readings
HD – Horizontal distance from the level to the rod
THREE-WIRE LEVELING
Where;
K – stadia interval factor
C – instrument constant
HI – Height of line of sight

HD = Ks + C; most leveling instrument K = 100 and C=0

THREE-WIRE LEVELING
Problem 21. Complete the level notes
INVERSE LEVELING
In the conventional method of differential leveling
we normally see to it that the line of sight of the
instrument is always higher than any point on
which the leveling rod is held. However, this is
not always the case. It is sometimes necessary to
determine the elevation of a point located higher
than the telescope of the instrument. This
method of leveling is use.
INVERSE LEVELING
Problem 22. Complete the level notes
THREE INTERVISIBLE POINTS
THREE INTERVISIBLE POINTS

+
THREE INTERVISIBLE POINTS
Where;
h – height in m. of the line of sight, at the intervening hill
C.
– height in m. of the station occupied at A
– height in m. of the station observed B.
– distance in kilometers of the intervening hill C from A.
– distance in kilometers of the intervening hill C from B.
THREE INTERVISIBLE POINTS
Problem 23
A 2-m triangulation tower is on top of hill B 705m above
mean sea level. What would be the height of the tower
to be erected at C located 10 km from B if the elevation
of A (located 12km from B) is 600m and that of C is
800m respectively in order that transceivers at A, B and
C will be intervisible?
THREE INTERVISIBLE POINTS
Problem 24
Mirador hill with an elevation of 616 m is on a line
between Aurora hill whose elevation is 650 m and
Cathedral hill having an elevation of 590m. Distance of
Mirador hill from Aurora hill is 10km and distance of
Mirador hill from Cathedral hill is 12 km. Considering
curvature and refraction correction.
a.) Compute the obstruction of the line of sight at
Mirador hill when observing Cathedral hill.
THREE INTERVISIBLE POINTS
Problem 24
a.) Compute the obstruction of the line of sight at Mirador hill
when observing Cathedral hill.
b.) What would be the height of equal towers to be erected at
Aurora hill and Cathedral hill so that the Cathedral hill, Aurora
hill and Mirador hill will be intervisible a 4 m tower erected at
the top of Mirador Hill.
c.) If no tower will be erected at Aurora hill and Mirador hill,
what would be the height of tower to be erected at Cathedral
hill so that Mirador and Cathedral hill will be intervisible from
Aurora hill?