METALS & ALLOYS

Dr. Asad Farooq

BDS, MDS, Cont. (Dental Materials)
Dow University Of Health Sciences,
Department Incharge (Dental Materials)
Liaquat College of Medicine and Dentistry.
Metals and Alloys
 OBJECTIVES
• To understand what are metals and alloys.
• Application of metals and alloys in dentistry.
• To understand Types of alloy.
• To understand Phase and Grain.
• To understand Crystal and Facet.
• To understand methods used for shaping of
metals.
Metal
An element that,
Ionizes positively in solutions.
Exhibits metallic bonding.
Opacity.
Good light reflectance from a polished surface.
High electrical and thermal conductivity.
Metal
• An opaque lustrous chemical substance
that is a good conductor of heat and
electricity and, when polished, is a good
reflector of light.
• Metals are sometimes described as a
lattice or framework of positive ions
surrounded by a cloud of delocalized
electrons.
 ORE
• An ore is a type of rock that contains minerals
with important elements including metals.

• The ores are extracted through mining; these

are then refined to extract the valuable
element(s).

• Metal in ores are generally oxides, sulfides,

silicates, copper.
Alloys
A metallic substance of two or more
metals that are mutually soluble in a liquid
state.
 Alloy
•Alloy - a mixture containing two or more
metallic elements or metallic and nonmetallic
elements usually fused together or dissolving
into each other when molten.

•Brass is an alloy of Zinc and Copper.

•Steel is an alloy of iron (metal) and carbon

(non-metal).
Alloys
•An alloy is a substance with metallic
properties that consists of two or more
chemical elements, at least one of which is a
metal.
• Qualitative and quantitative properties
such as,
• Luster,
• Malleability,
• Ductility,
• Electrical and thermal conductivity,
• Specific gravity,
• Ability to make a ringing sound when
struck.
 Application in Dentistry
• Metals and alloys used in dentistry are:

• Steel alloys: Construction of instruments

and wires.
• Gold Alloys and Alloys Containing
Chromium: Crowns, inlays and denture
bases.
• Dental Amalgam: Dental filling material.
• Phase: A state of matter that is different in
some way from the matter around it.
• Phase, is a physically distinctive form of
matter, such as a solid, liquid, gas or plasma
(hot ionized gas).
• A phase of matter is characterized by
having relatively uniform chemical and
physical properties.
• Microstructure:
• Structural appearance of a metal revealed
by microscopic imaging.

• Grain: A microscopic single crystal in the

microstructure of a metallic material.
• Crystal: A solid with periodic
arrangement of atoms, molecules or ions
usually with atomic planes forming
facets on the surface.
 Crystal
• A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material
whose constituent atoms, molecules, or ions
are arranged in an orderly repeating pattern
extending in all three-dimensional.
•
• The process of crystal formation via
mechanisms of crystal growth is called
crystallization or solidification.
• Crystal Lattice: The periodic arrangement
of atoms in three-dimensional space.
• Facet:
• A small, smooth, flat and highly polished
surface.
• Equiaxial: Having axis
of the same length.
• Equiaxed Grain
Microstructure: A cast
alloy microstructure in
which all of the grains
have similar
dimensions.
METHODS FOR SHAPING
METALS AND ALLOYS
Three methods are used for shaping of metals and
alloys for dental use:
1. Casting
2. Cold Working
3. Amalgamation
 Wax Pattern

1.Casting
Wax Pattern
Wax is adapted to the die.
Lubricant is used on die ► wax Lubrcant Die

pattern removed from the die easily. Metallic Ring

Wax pattern is embedded in

investment.
Dewaxing
Mould
Molten materials is forced into mould. Ceramic Paper liner
2.Cold Working
Mechanical shaping of the metals at
relatively low temperature.
Taking advantage of high value of the
ductility and malleability.
3.Amalgamation
Alloys can be mixed with
mercury ► plastic mass ►
hardens by chemical
reaction. Manual Trituration Procedures
(manual mixing)
• Elongated crystals formed when a pure metal
crystallizes from nuclei in a pattern that
resembles the branches of a tree called
dendrites.
Crystal Structure
Metals have crystalline
structure in solid state.
When molten metals and
alloys are cooled, solidification
process starts at different sites
called nuclei.
Nuclei are formed from
impurities within the molten
mass.
• Crystals grow as dendrites
from the central nucleus.
• Dendrites are three-
dimensional, branched
structures.
• Crystals growth continue
until all the material has
solidified and all the
dendritic crystals are in
contact.
GRAINS
Each crystal is known as grain.
Area between two grains in
contact is grain boundary.
After crystallization, grains
have approx. same dimensions
in each direction measured
from the centre of nuclei.
Crystallization Process
• Grains are not perfectly spherical, cubic or
any other geometric shape.
• They are said to have an equiaxed grain
structure.
• Change in equiaxed grain structure leads to
change in mechanical properties.
The atoms within each grain are arranged in three-
dimensional lattice.
 Possible arrangements are:
a. cubic
b. face centered cubic
c. body centered cubic
Arrangements of crystals
depend on specific factors:
1. atomic radius
2. charge distribution
Occasionally defects occur two
dimensionally.
 Such defects are referred to as
dislocations.
These defects effects the
ductility of the metal or alloy.
• Defects in crystal plane is known as
dislocations.
• Grain boundaries form a natural barrier to
the movement of dislocations.
• The plane along which the dislocation
moves is called a slip plane.
• Stress required to initiate dislocation
movement is the yield stress.
• Proof stress is the stress required to
produce a certain level of permanent
strain.
• The concentration of grain boundaries
increases as the grain size decreases.
• Metals with finer grain structure rather than
coarser grain structure are,
• –generally harder and
• –have higher values of yield stress
• Grain size can be controlled by rate of cooling
• Rapid cooling (quenching)
• –More nuclei smaller /fine grain
• Slow cooling
• –Fewer nuclei, larger/coarser grain
• For an applied tensile force the maximum
degree of extension is a measure of the
ductility of the metal or alloy.
• For an applied compressive force the
maximum degree of compression is a measure
of malleability.
• These changes occur when the stress is greater
than the yield stress and at relatively low
temperatures.
• Cold working produces,
• –Change in microstructure,
• –Dislocations becoming concentrated at grain
boundaries,
• –Change in grain shape (Equiaxed to fibrous)
• Properties of the material becoming harder and
stronger with a higher value of yield stress.
• The temperature below which work hardening
is possible is as termed the recrystallization
temperature.
• Ductility or malleability is decreased because
the potential for further cold working is
reduced (work hardening).
• Examples of cold working in dentistry include
the following.
• Bending of wires during construction of
appliances.
• Formation of wires, in which an alloy is forced
through a series of circular dies of gradually
decreasing diameter.
• Swaging of stainless steel denture bases.
• Swaging is a process that is used to reduce or
increase the diameter of tubes and/or rods.

• This is done by placing the tube or rod inside a

die that applies compressive force by
hammering radially.
Material properties can be controlled by
controlling the grain size.
• Refined grain structure
• Some metals and alloys are said to have a refined
grain structure, seeding the molten material
with an additive metal which forms nuclei for
crystallization

• Molten material + Additive metal fine

grain structure
Metallic crystal lattice
• Ductility and malleability.
• Changes occur when stress is
greater than yield stress at
relatively low temperature.
• Cold working not only produces
change in microstructure but also
changes the grain shape.
• Grains are no longer equiaxed but
more fibrous structure.
• Properties of the material are
changed (harder, stronger with
higher value of yield stress)
When mechanical work is carried out on a metal
or alloy

a.Below recrystallization temp, produces a

fibrous grain structure.

b.Above recrystallization temp, retains equiaxed

grain structure.
• When a cold worked object with fibrous grain
structure is heated to above its recrystallization
temp. It gradually reverts to an equiaxed form
and becomes softer.
• Recrystallization can be used as softening heat
treatment.
• Cold working may cause the formation of
internal stresses, if stresses are relieved they
cause distortion leading to loss of fit. e.g.
orthodontic appliance.
• Internal stresses may be eliminated by using a
low temperature heat treatment called stress
relief annealing.
• This is carried out well below recrystallization
temperature.
• Annealing is a heat treatment, causing changes
in its properties such as strength and hardness.
• It is used to
• Induce ductility,
• Soften material,
• Relieve internal stresses,
• Refine the structure by making it homogeneous,
and improve cold working properties.
• Annealing temperature and the control cooling
rate depend on the alloy composition and the
type of the annealing treatment.
• Use of pure metals is quite limited in dentistry
(soft and corrode rapidly).
• To enhance properties, mixture of two or more
metallic elements.
• Such mixtures are generally prepared by fusion
of elements above their melting point.
• Alloy is a Mixture of two or more metals.

• Binary alloys Mixtures

• are of two metals
• Ternary alloys Mixtures
• are of three metals etc.
In molten state metals usually show mutual
solubility, one within another.
When the molten metal is cooled to below
melting point, one of four things can occur.
1. Solid solution (metal components completely
soluble).
• The component metals may remain soluble in
each other forming a solid solution. The solid
solution may take one of three forms:
 Random solid solution/disordered solid
solution The component metal atoms occupy
random sites in a common crystal lattice.
 (Gold copper alloys)
Ordered solid solution/ substantial solid
solution. The component metal atoms occupy
specific sites within a common crystal lattice.
(palladium silver alloys)

Interstitial solid solution. The primary lattice

sites are occupied by one metal atom and the
atoms of the second component lie within the
interstices of the lattice.
(Cp titanium alloys)
2. The metals component insoluble in each other
(Eutectic alloys).

• The component metals may be completely

insoluble in the solid state ► susceptible to
electrolytic corrosion (rarely used).
3. Metals components partially soluble
(peritectic alloys)

•The two metals may be partially soluble in the

solid state ► solubility is temp. dependent ►
one phase consist of solid sol. B in A and the
other consist of A in B (commonly used).
4. Formation of intermetallic compounds (e.g.
Ag3Sn). An intermetallic compound is a solid-
state compound exhibiting metallic bonding.
• Many intermetallic compounds are often
simply called alloys.
• Potential for movement along slip plane is
reduced.
• Relatively hard and brittle with low ductility.
Cooling Curves PURE METAL
•The material is heated till
molten then allowed to cool.
•The cooling curve displays a
distinct plateau region at the
melting point (Tm) indicating
that temperature remains
constant over a period of
time during crystallization.

Temperature
against time is
recorded
• No such plateau region.
ALLOYS
• Crystallization begins at
temperature T1, and is
complete at
temperature T2
 Cooling Curves
• Metals and alloys are characterized by cooling
curves.
metals
t t
Alloys
e e
m m
p p

time time

• If a series of cooling curves for alloys are

available a phase diagram can be constructed.
• A and B, in which the melting point of metal A
is greater than that of metal B, – the first
material to crystallize, at just below
temperature T1, will be rich in the higher
melting point metal A, whilst the last material
to crystallize, at a temperature just above T2,
is rich in the lower melting point metal B.

• Cored structure (CORING), The higher melting

metal being concentrated close to the nucleus
and the lower melting metal close to the grain
boundaries.
• Temperature limits of
the crystallization range,
PHASE DIAGRAM
T1 and T2, for alloys Solid solution alloy metals A and B
ranging in composition.
• Above Liquidus line, the
alloy is totally liquid.
• Below Solidus line, the
alloy is totally solid.
• Between the solidus and
liquidus lines the alloy
consists of a mixture of
 SOLID SOLUTION
• The composition ALLOYS
of the first solid to Alloy of composition X(approximately
60% A and 40% B).
form is given by
drawing a
horizontal line or
tie line to
intersect the
solidus.
 Homogenization heat treatment
• Is used to eliminate the cored structure.
• Heating the alloy to a temperature just below
the solidus temperature for a few minutes to
allow diffusion of atoms and the
establishment of an homogeneous structure.
• The alloy is then normally quenched in order
to prevent grain growth from occurring.
• An example of a solid solution alloy is the
gold-silver system.
 EUTECTIC ALLOY
• Alloy systems that do not exhibit
complete solubility in both the liquid and
the solid states
• Frozen brine solutions.
• Salt + water freezing Salt crystals+ Ice
crystals
 EUTECTIC PHASE DIAGRAMS
• EUTECTIC ALLOY Alloy of two metals, A and B

• It crystallizes at a given
temperature and not over
a range of temperatures.
• The alloy with
composition
corresponding to point C
is called the eutectic alloy.
• They are often used as
solders.
 PERlTECTlC ALLOYS
• Limited solid solubility of two metals can
result in a PERlTECTlC transformations
• Silver-tin system (dental amalgam)
• Silver and platinum (gold casting alloys)
• Palladium and Ruthenium (Ruthenium is
an important grain-refining element for
palladium casting alloys)
 Phase Diagrams
• They are the maps of phases when metals are mixed
together.
• X axis –Composition of
Element
• Y axis- temp of alloy
• Phase diagram consist of
I. Liquid phase
II. Liquid + solid phase
III. Solid phase
 Phase diagram shows composition and types
of phases at a given temp
It can also be used to find the composition of
liquid and solid between solidus and liquidus.
a)Solid solution phase diagrams- When
components are completely soluble
b)Eutectic phase diagrams- when components
are completely insoluble

Sometimes there is a mixture of the constituent

elements which produces solidification at a single
temperature like a pure element. This is called
the eutectic point.
Properties of Casting Alloys
Solid solution have higher strength, hardness
and lower ductility than pure metals.
They have melting ranges rather than melting
points.
Eutectic mixtures are often harder and stronger
than the parent elements and are often brittle.
They have melting points.
Poor corrosion resistance.
Intermetallic compounds are very hard and
brittle
Their properties resemble that of the parent
compound.
Properties of Wrought Alloys

High strength and hardness

Ductility is reduced
• The grain size of alloys can be controlled by the
rate of cooling from the melt.
• Alloys can be work hardened and they undergo
recrystallization and grain growth.
• With slow cooling the crystallization process is
accompanied by diffusion and a random
distribution of atoms results, with no coring.
• Rapid cooling quickly denies the alloy the energy
and mobility required for diffusion of atoms to
occur and the cored structure is‘locked in’ at low
temperatures. Reducing the cooling rate as a
means of eliminating coring would be self-
defeating.
THANK U