IB Biology

2023
B2.2 Organelles and
Compartmentalization

1. How are organelles in cells

adapted to their functions?
2. What are the advantages of
compartmentalization in cells?

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 B2.2 Organelles and Compartmentalization
Sub-Topics

Sub-Topic Clarification

B2.2.1—Organelles as discrete subunits of cells that are adapted to Students should understand that the cell wall, cytoskeleton and cytoplasm are not considered organelles, and that nuclei,
perform specific functions vesicles, ribosomes and the plasma membrane are. NOS: Students should recognize that progress in science often follows
development of new techniques. For example, study of the function of individual organelles became possible when
ultracentrifuges had been invented and methods of using them for cell fractionation had been developed.

B2.2.2—Advantage of the separation of the nucleus and cytoplasm Limit to separation of the activities of gene transcription and translation—post-transcriptional modification of mRNA can happen
into separate compartments before the mRNA meets ribosomes in the cytoplasm. In prokaryotes this is not possible—mRNA may immediately meet ribosomes.

B2.2.3—Advantages of compartmentalization in the cytoplasm of Include concentration of metabolites and enzymes and the separation of incompatible biochemical processes. Include lysosomes
cells and phagocytic vacuoles as examples.

B2.2.4—Adaptations of the mitochondrion for production of ATP by Include these adaptations: a double membrane with a small volume of intermembrane space, large surface area of cristae and
aerobic cell respiration AHL compartmentalization of enzymes and substrates of the Krebs cycle in the matrix.

B2.2.5—Adaptations of the chloroplast for photosynthesis AHL Include these adaptations: the large surface area of thylakoid membranes with photosystems, small volumes of fluid inside
thylakoids, and compartmentalization of enzymes and substrates of the Calvin cycle in the stroma.

B2.2.6—Functional benefits of the double membrane of the nucleus Include the need for pores in the nuclear membrane and for the nucleus membrane to break into vesicles during mitosis and
AHL meiosis.

B2.2.7—Structure and function of free ribosomes and of the rough Contrast the synthesis by free ribosomes of proteins for retention in the cell with synthesis by membrane-bound ribosomes on the
endoplasmic reticulum AHL rough endoplasmic reticulum of proteins for transport within the cell and secretion

B2.2.8—Structure and function of the Golgi apparatus AHL Limit to the roles of the Golgi apparatus in processing and secretion of protein.

B2.2.9—Structure and function of vesicles in cells AHL Include the role of clathrin in the formation of vesicles.

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 Two Types of Cells

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Bacteria Animal Plant Fungi Protist

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 Types of Cells

Eukaryotes Prokaryote
- organelles - no organelles

animal plant bacteria

bacteria
cells cells cells
cells
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 Prokaryotes
• Are enclosed by a cell membrane
• Have DNA located in the nucleoid region

• The rest of the cytoplasm consists of:

• Cytosol (water and dissolved material) and suspended particles
• Ribosomes—sites of protein synthesis

• Most prokaryotes have a rigid cell wall outside the cell membrane.

• Bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycans.

• Some bacteria have an additional outer membrane that is very
permeable.

• Other bacteria have a slimy layer of polysaccharides, called the capsule.

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 B2.2.2—Advantage of the separation of the nucleus and cytoplasm into separate compartments

Eukaryotic Cells
• Protists, fungi, animals, plants
• Plasma membrane
• Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma
membrane and nucleus
• Semifluid substance called cytosol
• Ribosomes (make proteins)
• DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a
membranous nuclear envelope
• Chromosomes (carry genes)
• Membrane-bound organelles
• Eukaryotic usually much larger than
prokaryotic cells

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 Prokaryote
s vs.
Eukaryote
s

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 Plasma/cell
membrane
Found in
Cytoplasm
Both
Prokaryoti Ribosomes
c and
Eukaryotic DNA
Cells:
Cilia/Flagella
(sometimes)

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 B2.2.1—Organelles as discrete subunits of cells that are adapted to perform specific functions

• Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus, cell membrane,

Eukaryotic cytoplasm, and ribosomes, as well as
membrane-enclosed compartments called
Cells organelles.
• Each organelle plays a specific role in the cell.

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 B2.2.1—Organelles as discrete subunits of cells that are adapted to perform specific functions

Organelles

• Organelles as discrete subunits

of cells that are adapted to
perform specific functions
• Among the more important cell
organelles are:
• the nuclei, which store
genetic information;
• mitochondria, which
produce chemical energy;
• and ribosomes, which
assemble proteins.

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 B2.2.1—Organelles as discrete subunits of cells that are adapted to perform specific functions

Defining an Organelle

• Some references are strict in their definition of an organelle: an

organelle is one that is surrounded by lipid bilayers.
• Based on this definition, they are
particularly nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, mitochondria, and plastids (e.g. chloroplasts).
• In this sense, ribosomes and nucleosomes are not regarded as
organelles because they are not bounded by membranes.

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 B2.2.1—Organelles as discrete subunits of cells that are adapted to perform specific functions

Another
Definition

• An organelle is one that acts as a

specialized subunit inside the cell that
performs a specific function.
• In this regard, there are two types of
organelles:
1. membrane-bound organelles (included
are double-membraned and single-
membraned cytoplasmic structures)
2. non-membrane-bound organelles (also
referred to as biomolecular
complexes or proteinaceous
organelles)
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 B2.2.1—Organelles as discrete subunits of cells that are adapted to perform specific functions

Breaking up Organelles

• Cells can be broken up in various ways: they can

be subjected to osmotic shock or ultrasonic
vibration, forced through a small orifice, or ground
up in a blender.
• The procedures separate them into fragments that
immediately reseal to form small closed vesicles.
• Such cell fractionations became possible only after
the commercial development in the early 1940s of
an instrument known as the preparative
ultracentrifuge, in which extracts of broken cells
are rotated at high speeds.

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 B2.2.1—Organelles as discrete subunits of cells that are adapted to perform specific functions

Ultracentrifuge

• This treatment separates cell

components by size and density:
in general, the largest units
experience the largest centrifugal
force and move the most rapidly.
• At relatively low speed, large
components such as nuclei
sediment to form a pellet at the
bottom of the centrifuge tube; at
slightly higher speed, a pellet of
mitochondria is deposited; and at
even higher speeds and with
longer periods of centrifugation,
first the small closed vesicles and
then the ribosomes can be
collected

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 B2.2.1—Organelles as discrete subunits of cells that are adapted to perform specific functions

Cell Compartmentalization
in Eukaryotes vs.
Prokaryotes

• Although prokaryotes generally lack internal

membranes and membrane-bounded organelles,
they have internal regions where specific
molecules and cell materials concentrate.
• There are some groups of prokaryotes with
membrane delimited compartments or cell
membrane invaginations, however, they mostly
serve for material storage and are not as complex
as in eukaryotes.

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 B2.2.1—Organelles as discrete subunits of cells that are adapted to perform specific functions

There are Several Advantages in

Eukaryotic Cells Being
Compartmentalized

1. Efficiency of metabolism - enzymes and

substrates can localized and much more
concentrated
2. Localized conditions - pH and other such factors
can be kept at optimal levels. The optimal pH
level for one process in one part of the cell
3. Toxic / damaging substances can be isolated,
e.g. digestive enzymes (that could digest the
cell itself) are stored in lysosomes
4. Numbers and locations of organelles can be
changed dependent on the cell’s requirements.

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 B2.2.1—Organelles as discrete subunits of cells that are adapted to perform specific functions

Cell Compartmentalization

The characteristic feature of eukaryotic cells to have several

differentiated compartments formed by membrane-bounded
organelles and internal membranes is called cell
compartmentalization.

Cell compartmentalization refers to the presence of separated

compartments inside the cell with specific conditions that allow the
simultaneous occurrence of diverse metabolic reactions and
processes.

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 The Nucleus
Cell
Compartmen Cytosol
ts
The Endomembrane
System
Mitochondrion

Plastids

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 B2.2.2—Advantage of the separation of the nucleus and cytoplasm into separate compartments

Separation of the
Membrane, Cytoplasm,
and Nucleus

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 B2.2.2—Advantage of the separation of the nucleus and cytoplasm into separate compartments

Plasma Membrane

• Plasma Membrane: cell/plasma

membrane is the boundary of the
cell.
• It acts as a “gatekeeper”,
preventing the entry or exit of
some molecules and facilitating
the movement of others.
• It is a phospholipid bilayer
• It is permeable to oxygen and
carbon dioxide
• It is impermeable to water and
charged particles, they must
enter through special proteins
embedded in the membrane
• Found in both prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells.

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 B2.2.2—Advantage of the separation of the nucleus and cytoplasm into separate compartments

• Cytoplasm: interior of the cell membrane,

suspending subcellular components within it.
Cytoplasm • Made up of mostly salt and water.
• Cytosol: the semifluid part of the cytoplasm

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 B2.2.2—Advantage of the separation of the nucleus and cytoplasm into separate compartments

Nucleus

• Function
• Control center of cell
• Protects DNA
• Instructions for
building proteins
• Structure
• Nuclear membrane
• Nucleolus
• Ribosome factory
• Chromosomes
• DNA

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 B2.2.2—Advantage of the separation of the nucleus and cytoplasm into separate compartments

Cells Need • To run daily life & growth, the cell must…
• Read genes (DNA)

Workers = • Build proteins

• Structural proteins (muscle fibers, hair,

Proteins!
skin, claws)
• Enzymes (speed up chemical reactions)
• Signals (hormones) & receptors
• Organelles that do this work…
• Nucleus
• Ribosomes
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Golgi apparatus

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 The Endomembrane
System

• “Endo”=inside
• Consists of:
• Nuclear Envelope,
• Endoplasmic Reticulum,
• Golgi Apparatus,
• Lysosomes,
• Vacuoles,
• and the Plasma Membrane

• Components are either continuous

or connected via transfer by
vesicles

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 B2.2.2—Advantage of the separation of the nucleus and cytoplasm into separate compartments

Traffic Between the

Nucleus and Cytoplasm

• The nuclear envelope separates the

contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm
and provides the structural framework of
the nucleus.
• The nuclear membranes, acting as barriers
that prevent the free passage of molecules
between the nucleus and the cytoplasm,
maintain the nucleus as a distinct
biochemical compartment.
• The selective traffic of proteins and RNAs
through the nuclear pore complexes not
only establishes the internal composition of
the nucleus, but also plays a critical role in
regulating eukaryotic gene expression.

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 B2.2.2—Advantage of the separation of the nucleus and cytoplasm into separate compartments

Nuclear Pore Complex

• By controlling the traffic of molecules

between the nucleus and cytoplasm,
the nuclear pore complex plays a
fundamental role in the physiology of
all eukaryotic cells.
• RNAs that are synthesized in the
nucleus must be efficiently exported to
the cytoplasm, where they function in
protein synthesis.

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 B2.2.2—Advantage of the separation of the nucleus and cytoplasm into separate compartments

Proteins Do All The Work!

one of the major job of cells is to make

proteins,
because…
proteins do all the
work! structural
enzymes
signals
receptors

DNA proteins cells

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 B2.2.2—Advantage of the separation of the nucleus and cytoplasm into separate compartments

endoplasmic
reticulum
protein
DNA on its way! TO:

nucleus

RNA vesicle TO:

TO:

vesicle
ribosomes

TO:

protein finished
protein
Making Proteins
Golgi
apparatus

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 B2.2.3—Advantages of compartmentalization in the cytoplasm of cells

Compartmentalizati
on in the Cytoplasm
vesicular components of the membrane
trafficking system like lysosomes and endosomes

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 B2.2.3—Advantages of compartmentalization in the cytoplasm of cells

Vesicles are tiny sacs that transport

Vesicular material within or outside the cell.
Componen
ts

There are several types of vesicle,

including:
transport secretory lysosome
vesicles vesicles s

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 B2.2.3—Advantages of compartmentalization in the cytoplasm of cells

Vesicles can help transport

materials that an organism needs
to survive and recycle waste
Vesicles materials.
They can also absorb and destroy
toxic substances and pathogens to
prevent cell damage and infection.

Vesicles also help store and

transport materials such as
proteins, enzymes, hormones,
and neurotransmitters.

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 B2.2.3—Advantages of compartmentalization in the cytoplasm of cells

Lysosomes

• Function
• Little “stomach” of the cell
• Digests
macromolecules
• “Clean up crew” of the cell
• Cleans up broken down

organelles
• Structure
• Vesicles of digestive
hydrolytic enzymes

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 B2.2.3—Advantages of compartmentalization in the cytoplasm of cells

Vesicle containing 1 µm
two damaged
organelles

Mitochondrion contain hydrolases

fragment (digestive enzymes),
and are the site
Peroxisome where
fragment macromolecules
are hydrolyzed into
monomers!
Lysosom
Lysosome e

Peroxisome

Mitochondrio Digestio
Vesicle n n

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 B2.2.3—Advantages of compartmentalization in the cytoplasm of cells

Lysosomes
Lyso– = breaking things
apart
–Some = body
• In animal cells only vacuole
• Lysosomes fuse with food
vacuoles
• Polymers digested into
monomers
• Pass to cytosol to
become nutrients of cell

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 B2.2.3—Advantages of compartmentalization in the cytoplasm of cells

Peroxisomes

• Other digestive enzyme sacs

• In both animals & plants
• Breakdown fatty acids to
sugars
• Easier to transport & use as
energy source
• Detoxify cell
• Detoxifies alcohol &
other poisons
• Produce peroxide (H2O2)
• Must breakdown
H2O2  H2O

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 B2.2.3—Advantages of compartmentalization in the cytoplasm of cells

Lysosomal enzymes

• Lysosomal enzymes work best at pH 5

• Organelle creates custom pH
• How?
• Proteins in lysosomal membrane pump h+ ions from the
cytosol into lysosome
• Why?
• Enzymes are very sensitive to pH
• Why?
• Enzymes are proteins — pH affects structure
• Why evolve digestive enzymes which function at pH
different from cytosol?
• Digestive enzymes won’t function well if some leak into
cytosol = don’t want to digest yourself!

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 B2.2.3—Advantages of compartmentalization in the cytoplasm of cells

When Things Go Bad…

• Diseases of lysosomes are often fatal

• Digestive enzyme not working in lysosome
• Picks up biomolecules, but can’t digest one
• Lysosomes fill up with undigested material
• Grow larger & larger until disrupts cell & organ
function
• Lysosomal storage diseases
• More than 40 known diseases
• Example: tay-sachs disease build up
undigested fat in brain cells

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 B2.2.3—Advantages of compartmentalization in the cytoplasm of cells

Lysosomal
Storage Diseases

• Lipids
• Gaucher’s disease
• Niemann-Pick disease
• Tay Sachs
• Glycogen & other
poylsaccharides
• Farber disease
• Krabbe disease
• Proteins
• Schindler’s disease

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 B2.2.3—Advantages of compartmentalization in the cytoplasm of cells

But Sometimes Cells Need to

Die…

• Lysosomes can be used to kill cells when

they are supposed to be destroyed
• Some cells must die for proper development
in an organism
• Apoptosis
• “Auto-destruct” process
• Lysosomes break open & kill cell
• Ex: tadpole tail gets re-absorbed when it turns
into a frog
• Ex: loss of webbing between your fingers
during fetal development

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 B2.2.3—Advantages of compartmentalization in the cytoplasm of cells

small food
Digestive particle

Vacuoles vacuole filled w/

digestive enzymes

vesicle

vesicle filled w/
digested nutrients

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 B2.2.4—Adaptations of the mitochondrion for production of ATP by aerobic cell respiration AHL

• Important to see the similarities

• Transform energy
• Generate ATP
• Double membranes = 2 membranes
Mitochondr • Semi-autonomous organelles
ia and • Move, change shape, divide

Chloroplast • Internal ribosomes, DNA & enzymes

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 B2.2.4—Adaptations of the mitochondrion for production of ATP by aerobic cell respiration AHL

Mitochondria

• Two membranes
• Smooth outer membrane
• Highly folded inner membrane
• Cristae
• Fluid-filled space between
the two membranes
• Increase surface area for
membrane-bound enzymes
that synthesize ATP
• Internal fluid-filled space
• Mitochondrial matrix
• DNA, ribosomes & enzymes

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 B2.2.4—Adaptations of the mitochondrion for production of ATP by aerobic cell respiration AHL

Mitochondria Double
Membrane
• A mitochondria is enclosed by a double membrane
envelope composed of lipid and protein.
• The two membranes are separated by a narrow fluid
–filled space called the outer compartment.
• The outer membrane is smooth, it is more
permeable to small molecules, contains some
enzymes but is poorer in proteins.
• The inner membrane surrounds a central cavity or
matrix (inner compartment) filled with a fluid.
• Folds of inner wall of mitochondria are called cristae.

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 B2.2.4—Adaptations of the mitochondrion for production of ATP by aerobic cell respiration AHL

Mitochondria –
Outer
Membrane

• The outer mitochondrial

membrane, which
encloses the entire
organelle, has a protein-
to-phospholipid ratio
similar to the eukaryotic
plasma membrane.
• It also has integral
proteins.

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 B2.2.4—Adaptations of the mitochondrion for production of ATP by aerobic cell respiration AHL

Mitochondria – the
Matrix
• Compartment enclosed by the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
• Contains enzymes that catalyze some metabolic
steps of cellular respiration.
• Location to catalyze the reactions of Krebs cycle
and perform oxidative phosphorylation to release
high grade energy in the form of ATP, NADH2,
FADH2.
• It contains most of the enzymes of citric acid
cycle, fatty acid oxidation & pyruvate
dehydrogenase system.
• Contains mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes

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 B2.2.4—Adaptations of the mitochondrion for production of ATP by aerobic cell respiration AHL

Mitochondria – inner
membrane
• Inner membrane is the site of the e-
transport chain, across which the proton
pump occurs and contains ATP synthase.
• Inner membrane is highly folded – called
cristae – increasing the surface area on
which the above reactions can take place
• Compartmentalized into numerous cristae,
which expand the surface area of the inner
mitochondrial membrane, enhancing its
ability to generate ATP

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 B2.2.5—Adaptations of the chloroplast for photosynthesis AHL

Chloroplasts

• Chloroplasts are plant organelles

• Class of plant structures = plastids
• Amyloplasts
• Store starch in roots & tubers
• Chromoplasts
• Store pigments for fruits &
flowers
• Chloroplasts
• Store chlorophyll & function
in photosynthesis
• In leaves, other green
structures of plants &
in eukaryotic algae

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 B2.2.5—Adaptations of the chloroplast for photosynthesis AHL

Chloroplasts

• Two membranes
• stroma = internal fluid-filled space
• DNA, ribosomes & enzymes
• thylakoids = membranous sacs where
ATP is made
• grana = stacks of thylakoids
• Internal sac membrane increase
surface area for membrane-bound
enzymes that synthesize ATP

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 B2.2.5—Adaptations of the chloroplast for photosynthesis AHL

Through evolution, plant cells, certain bacteria and some

algae have acquired chloroplasts to help carry out the
photosynthetic reaction. Chloroplasts are a plastid or plant
cell organelle.
Chloroplasts are full of round
flattened discs called thylakoids.
A stack of thylakoids is called a
Both pictures are granum.
of chloroplasts in
plant cells at
different
Chloropla
magnifications. st

Stroma is the
space inside
chloroplasts
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 B2.2.5—Adaptations of the chloroplast for photosynthesis AHL

Chloroplasts and NADP

+
NADP
H

Photosynthesis T
H
PSI PSI
I
Y O_
L H H

_
• Thylakoids/grana: light reactions or “light dependent reactions” A
capture light energy to power photosynthesis. K
• Pigments in the thylakoid membranes form protein complexes O
called Photosystem I and Photosystem II.
I ATP
• These photosystems harvest photons to charge up energy make
carrying molecules that will power the dark reactions. D r

• Stroma: Light independent reactions or carbon fixation/Calvin-Benson

cycle do not need light energy to power their reactions and can occur
day or night.
• The Calvin Cycle converts the carbon from carbon dioxide into
glucose in the stroma. This is called carbon fixation because
carbon is fixed into another form.

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 B2.2.5—Adaptations of the chloroplast for photosynthesis AHL

Mitochondria & Chloroplasts are

Different

• Organelles not part of

endomembrane system
• Grow & reproduce
• semi-autonomous organelles
• Proteins primarily from free
ribosomes in cytosol & a few from
their own ribosomes
• Own circular chromosome
• directs synthesis of proteins
produced by own internal
ribosomes
• ribosomes like bacterial
ribosomes

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 B2.2.6—Functional benefits of the double membrane of the nucleus AHL

Nuclear Double
Membrane

• The nuclear membrane is a

double layer that encloses the
cell’s nucleus, where the
chromosomes reside.
• The nuclear membrane serves to
separate the chromosomes from
the cell’s cytoplasm and other
contents.
• An array of small holes or pores in
the nuclear membrane permits
the selective passage of certain
materials, such as nucleic acids
and proteins, between the
nucleus and cytoplasm.

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 B2.2.6—Functional benefits of the double membrane of the nucleus AHL

Nuclear Envelope

• The nuclear envelope manages what

materials can enter and exit the nucleus.
It does so by being selectively permeable.
• Only certain proteins can physically pass
through the double layer.
• This protects genetic information from
mixing with other parts of the cell.
• This also allows different cellular activities
to occur inside the nucleus and outside
the nucleus in the cytoplasm, where all
other cellular structures are located.

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 B2.2.6—Functional benefits of the double membrane of the nucleus AHL

Outer Nuclear
Membrane
• The nuclear membrane is a lipid bilayer like the
cell membrane, meaning that it consists of two
layers of lipid molecules.
• The outer layer of lipids has ribosomes, structures
that make proteins, on its surface.
• It is connected to the endoplasmic reticulum, a
cell structure that packages and transports
proteins.

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 B2.2.6—Functional benefits of the double membrane of the nucleus AHL

The inner membrane contains proteins

that help organize the nucleus and
Inner tether genetic material in place.
Nuclear
Membrane This network of fibers and proteins
attached to the inner membrane is called
the nuclear lamina (only found in animal
cells).

It structurally supports the nucleus, plays

a role in repairing DNA, and regulates
events in the cell cycle such as cell
division and the replication of DNA.

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 B2.2.6—Functional benefits of the double membrane of the nucleus AHL

Nuclear Pores

• Nuclear pores made up of large complexes of

proteins pass through both the outer and inner
membranes of the nuclear membrane.
• They allow certain molecules to pass through the
nuclear membrane.
• They connect the outer and inner membranes.
• During cell division, more nuclear pores are
formed in the nuclear membrane in preparation
for cell division.
• The nuclear membrane eventually breaks
down and is reformed around the nuclei of
each of the two daughter cells.

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 B2.2.7—Structure and function of free ribosomes and of the rough endoplasmic reticulum AHL

Attached to the
Outer Nuclear
Membrane is
the
Endoplasmic
Reticulum

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 B2.2.7—Structure and function of free ribosomes and of the rough endoplasmic reticulum AHL

Endoplasmic
Reticulum
• Function
• Works on proteins
• Helps complete the proteins after ribosome builds them
• Makes membranes
• Structure
• Rough ER
• Ribosomes attached
• Works on proteins
• Smooth ER
• Makes lipids/membranes

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 B2.2.7—Structure and function of free ribosomes and of the rough endoplasmic reticulum AHL

Smooth vs. Rough ER

Smooth ER: Rough ER:
• Makes lipids • Because ribosomes are attached, many
• Metabolizes carbohydrates proteins are made here, especially
glycoproteins.
• Detoxifies poisons
• Distributes proteins in vesicles (little
• Stores calcium membrane-bound bundles of proteins)
• Makes membranes for the cell

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 B2.2.7—Structure and function of free ribosomes and of the rough endoplasmic reticulum AHL

Ribosomes
protein factories
Function read instructions to build proteins from DNA

some free in cytoplasm

Structure some attached to ER

Ribosomes on ER

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 B2.2.7—Structure and function of free ribosomes and of the rough endoplasmic reticulum AHL

Ribosomes

• All living cells contain ribosomes, tiny

organelles composed of
approximately 60 percent ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) and 40 percent protein.
• However, though they are generally
described as organelles, it is
important to note that ribosomes are
not bound by a membrane and are
much smaller than other organelles.

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 B2.2.7—Structure and function of free ribosomes and of the rough endoplasmic reticulum AHL

Ribosomes

• Organelles not made of

membranes
• Made of rRNA and proteins
• Attached to RER or free in
the cytoplasm
• Round shape
• Function in synthesizing
proteins based on an
mRNA sequence

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 B2.2.7—Structure and function of free ribosomes and of the rough endoplasmic reticulum AHL

Ribosome
Types

• Ribosomes: complexes of
rRNA and protein subunits
that carry out the function
of protein synthesis
• Free Ribosomes are found
suspended in the cytosol
• Produce proteins
(enzymes) used within the
cell
Note: S Svedberg unit, a measure of
the rate of sedimentation in • 80s size in Eukaryotes
centrifugation rather than size and
accounts for why fragment names do • 70s size in Prokaryotes
not add up (70S is made of 50S and
30S).
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 B2.2.8—Structure and function of the Golgi apparatus AHL

Golgi Apparatus

Function vesicles
carrying proteins
• Finishes, sorts, labels & ships
proteins
• Like UPS headquarters
• Shipping & receiving department
• Ships proteins in vesicles
• “UPS trucks”

Structure
transport vesicles
• Membrane sacs

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 B2.2.8—Structure and function of the Golgi apparatus AHL

Golgi Apparatus:
Packs and Ships

• Golgi Apparatus is a
complex of flattened sacs
of membranes (called
cisternae).
• Modifies products of the ER
• Manufactures certain
macromolecules
• Sorts and packages
materials into transport
vesicles

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 B2.2.9—Structure and function of vesicles in cells AHL

Vesicles are a crucial part of

the cell and play important
Vesicles roles in many biological
processes.

The five main types of vesicle

are:
extracellula
transport secretory peroxisome r vesicles
lysosomes
vesicles vesicles s

© Created by Alyssa 2023

 B2.2.9—Structure and function of vesicles in cells AHL

Transport vesicles
shuttle substances
between the various
components, as well
as to the cell
membrane.

© Created by Alyssa 2023

 B2.2.9—Structure and function of vesicles in cells AHL

• Membranes and proteins are moved around the cell in small

vesicles.

Transport • A protein coat aids the budding of such vesicles from donor
membranes.
Vesicles • The major type of coat used by the cell is comprised of clathrin: a
three-legged protein that can form lattice-like coats on membranes
destined for trafficking

© Created by Alyssa 2023

 B2.2.9—Structure and function of vesicles in cells AHL

• Clathrin-coated vesicles were

the first discovered and remain
the most extensively
characterized transport
Transport vesicles.

Vesicles • They mediate endocytosis of

transmembrane receptors and
transport of newly synthesized
lysosomal hydrolases from the
trans-Golgi network to the
lysosome.

© Created by Alyssa 2023

 B2.2.9—Structure and function of vesicles in cells AHL

Secretory Vesicles

• Secretory vesicles play an important role in

moving molecules outside of the cell, through a
process called exocytosis.
• They are crucial for healthy organ and tissue
function.
• For example, secretory vesicles in the stomach
will transport protein-digesting enzymes to help
break down food.
• Synaptic vesicles are another example of a
secretory vesicle, and they are present at the
end of nerve cells (neurons).

© Created by Alyssa 2023

 B2.2.9—Structure and function of vesicles in cells AHL

Extracellular
Vesicles

• Extracellular vesicles can float

outside of cells.
• For many years, scientists saw
extracellular vesicles as insignificant
to cell health and functionality.
• However, recent research has
suggested that these vesicles have
a vital role to play in communicating
between cells and have important
evolutionary consequences.

© Created by Alyssa 2023