ENGINEERING

MECHANICS
FORCE VECTORS
 SCALARS AND VECTORS
Scalar
A scalar is any positive or negative physical quantity that
can be completely specified by its magnitude. Examples
of scalar quantities include length, mass, and time.

Vector
A vector is any physical quantity that requires both a
magnitude and a direction for its complete description.
Examples of vectors encountered in statics are force,
position, and moment. A vector is shown graphically by
an arrow. The length of the arrow represents the
magnitude of the vector, and the angle u between the
vector and a fixed axis defines the direction of its line of
action.
VECTOR OPERATIONS

Multiplication and Division of a Vector by a Scalar

If a vector is multiplied by a positive scalar, its magnitude is increased by that
amount. Multiplying by a negative scalar will also change the directional
sense of the vector.
Vector Addition
When adding two vectors together it is important to account for both their
magnitudes and their directions. To do this we must use the parallelogram law of
addition. To illustrate, the two component vectors A and B are added to form a
resultant vector R = A + B using the following procedure:
• First join the tails of the components at a point to make them concurrent
• From the head of B, draw a line parallel to A. Draw another line from the head of A
that is parallel to B. These two lines intersect at point P to form the adjacent sides
of a parallelogram.
• The diagonal of this parallelogram that extends to P forms R, which then
represents the resultant vector R = A + B
We can also add B to A, using the triangle rule, which is a special case of the
parallelogram law, whereby vector B is added to vector A in a “head-to-tail” fashion, i.e.,
by connecting the head of A to the tail of B,. The resultant R extends from the tail of A to
the head of B. In a similar manner, R can also be obtained by adding A to B. By
comparison, it is seen that vector addition is commutative; in other words, the vectors
can be added in either order, i.e., R = A + B = B + A.

As a special case, if the two vectors A and B are collinear, i.e., both have the same line
of action, the parallelogram law reduces to an algebraic or scalar addition R = A + B.
Vector Subtraction
The resultant of the difference between two vectors A and B of the same type
may be expressed as R’ = A - B = A + (-B). Subtraction is therefore defined
as a special case of addition, so the rules of vector addition also apply to
vector subtraction.
VECTOR ADDITION OF FORCES

Finding a Resultant Force

The two component forces F1 and F2 acting on the pin shown can be added
together to form the resultant force FR = F1 + F2. From this construction,
or using the triangle rule, we can apply the law of cosines or the law of
sines to the triangle in order to obtain the magnitude of the resultant force
and its direction.
Finding the Components of a Force
Sometimes it is necessary to resolve a force into two components in order to study
its pulling or pushing effect in two specific directions. For example, in the figure
shown, F is to be resolved into two components along the two members, defined
by the u and v axes.
Addition of Several Forces
If more than two forces are to be added, successive applications of the
parallelogram law can be carried out in order to obtain the resultant force.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1

Determine the
magnitude of the
resultant force acting on
the screw eye and its
direction measured
clockwise from the x
axis.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2

Determine the
magnitude of the
resultant force and its
direction measured
counterclockwise
from the positive
x axis.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3

Resolve the 30-lb

force into
components along
the u and v axes, and
determine the
magnitude of each of
these components.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 4

It is required that the resultant

force acting on the eyebolt be
directed along the positive x
axis and that F₂ have a
minimum magnitude.
Determine this magnitude, the
angle θ, and the corresponding
resultant force.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 5

Determine the magnitude

and direction of the
resultant force, measured
counterclockwise from the
positive x axis. Solve by
first finding the resultant
F’ = F₂ + F₃ and then
forming FR = F’ + F₁
ADDITION OF A SYSTEM OF COPLANAR
FORCES
When a force is resolved into two components along the
x and y axes, the components are then called
rectangular components.

Scalar Notation
The rectangular components of force F shown are
found using the parallelogram law, so that F = Fx + Fy.
Because these components form a right triangle, they
can be determined from
 ADDITION OF A SYSTEM OF COPLANAR
FORCES
Instead of using the angle θ, however, the direction
of F can also be defined using a small “slope”
triangle, as in the example shown. Since this
triangle and the larger shaded triangle are similar,
the proportional length of the sides gives
Cartesian Vector Notation
It is also possible to represent the x and y
components of a force in terms of Cartesian
unit vectors i and j. They are called unit
vectors because they have a dimensionless
magnitude of 1, and so they can be used to
designate the directions of the x and y axes,
respectively. Since the magnitude of each
component of F is always a positive
quantity, which is represented by the
(positive) scalars Fx and Fy, then we can
express F as a Cartesian vector,
Coplanar Force Resultants
We can use either of the two methods just
described to determine the resultant of
several coplanar forces, i.e., forces that all
lie in the same plane. To do this, each force is
first resolved into its x and y components, and
then the respective components are added
using scalar algebra since they are collinear.
The resultant force is then formed by adding
the resultant components using the
parallelogram law.
We can represent the components of the
resultant force of any number of coplanar
forces symbolically by the algebraic sum of the
x and y components of all the forces, i.e.,

Once these components are determined, they

may be sketched along the x and y axes with
their proper sense of direction, and the Also, the angle θ, which
resultant force can be determined from vector specifies the direction of the
addition. From this sketch, the magnitude of resultant force, is
FR is then found from the Pythagorean determined from
theorem; that is, trigonometry:
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6

Determine the x and y

components of F₁ and F₂
acting on the boom
shown. Express each
force as a Cartesian
vector.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 7

The link is subjected

to two forces F₁ and
F₂. Determine the
magnitude and
direction of the
resultant force.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 8

The end of the boom O is

subjected to three
concurrent and coplanar
forces. Determine the
magnitude and direction of
the resultant force.
 CARTESIAN VECTORS
The operations of vector algebra, when applied to
solving problems in three dimensions, are greatly
simplified if the vectors are first represented in
Cartesian vector form.

Right-Handed Coordinate System

We will use a right-handed coordinate system to
develop the theory of vector algebra that follows.
A rectangular coordinate system is said to be
right-handed if the thumb of the right hand points
in the direction of the positive z axis when the
right-hand fingers are curled about this axis and
directed from the positive x towards the positive y
axis.
Rectangular Components of a Vector
A vector A may have one, two, or three rectangular
components along the x, y, z coordinate axes, depending on
how the vector is oriented relative to the axes. In general,
though, when A is directed within an octant of the x, y, z
frame, then by two successive applications of the
parallelogram law, we may resolve the vector into
components as A = A’ + Az and then A’ = Ax + Ay.
Combining these equations, to eliminate A’, A is represented
by the vector sum of its three rectangular components,
Cartesian Unit Vectors
In three dimensions, the set of Cartesian
unit vectors, i, j, k, is used to designate the
directions of the x, y, z axes, respectively. As
stated previously, the sense (or arrowhead)
of these vectors will be represented
analytically by a plus or minus sign,
depending on whether they are directed
along the positive or negative x, y, or z axes.
The positive Cartesian unit vectors. are
shown.
Cartesian Vector Representation
Since the three components of A act in
the positive i, j, and k directions, we can
write A in Cartesian vector form as

There is a distinct advantage to writing

vectors in this manner. Separating the
magnitude and direction of each
component vector will simplify the
operations of vector algebra, particularly
in three dimensions.
Magnitude of a Cartesian Vector
ADDITION OF CARTESIAN VECTORS
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 9

Express the force F

shown as a Cartesian
vector
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 10

Two forces act on the hook

shown. Specify the magnitude of
F₂ and its coordinate direction
angles so that the resultant
force FR acts along the positive
y axis and has a magnitude of
800 N.
END OF LESSON 2

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