Microwave Solid State Devices

►Microwave Transistors
► Tunnel diode
► Gunn Microwave diode.
► Transferred -effect diodes.
► Avalanche transit time devices.
► IMPATT diode.
► TRAPATT diode.
► BARITT diode.
► PIN diodes.
► Varactor diodes.
 Semiconductor •

• The expression for n and p type semiconductor are Fermi level changed with impurity
given by n = Nc e- (Ec - Ef ) / kT
(I) For lightly doped semiconductor: Nd <
• p = Nv e-(Ef - Ev) \ kT
Nc so that ln(Nc/Nd) is a +ve number,
• Let n =Nd and p = NA
hence Ef < EC and Fermi level lies inside
• Nd = Nc e- (Ec - Ef ) / kT ( for n type SC)
the forbidden band;
• Ec - Ef = kT ln {Nc/Nd} _______________Ec
• Ef = Ec - kT ln {Nc / Nd} (for n-type SC) ______________EF
• Ef = Ev + kT ln {Nv / Nd} (for p-type SC) ______________EV
• Nc = 1019 cm-3 (II) For heavilydoped semiconductor: Nd
• Un doped semiconductor- Fermi level lies in the > Nc so that ln(Nc/Nd) is a - ve number,
center of the forbidden energy band hence Ef > EC and Fermi level lies in the
_______________Ec conduction band
_______________EF EF = (Ec + Ev) / 2 __________EF
 Positive resistance Vs Negative
resistance
(1) In positive resistance; the current through
the resistance and voltage across are in 1) In a negative resistance ,the
(
phase. current and voltage are out of
phase by 180 degree.
(2)The voltage drop across a positive
resistance is positive and a power of I 2 / R is
dissipated in the resistance. (2) The voltage drop across a
negative resistance is negative
In other words, positive resistance absorbs the and a power of – I2 / R is
power (passive device) whereas negative generated by the power supply
resistance generate the power (active device)
associated with the negative
resistance.
 Negative Resistance Amplifiers

Consider the basic Negative –Resistance

Amplifier of Figure.
It consists of
• Input Source: is,
• Source Conductance: gs
• Negative conductance : – g
• Load conductance : gL
Fig: Basic Ckt of Negative Resistance Amplifier

• If the frequency is not so high that rs and Ls

of the tunnel diode equivalent circuit must
be taken into account and if the junction
capacitance Cj is tuned out, the –g is a
suitable representation of the tunnel diode.
In the absence of the diode, the maximum Ap = PL / Pmax
power available from the generator will be
when gL = gs is2 gL / (gs – g + gL) 2
P max = i2s / 4gs ---- (1)
In the presence of diode, the load = ----------------------------
voltage is is2 / 4gs
VL = is / (gs – g + gL) -------- (2) Ap > 1
Thus the power delivered to the load Ap = 4gsgL / (gs – g + gL) 2 ------- (4)
is: • For maximum power transfer, the load
conductance (gL) and generator
PL = V2L . gL conductance (gs) are made equal as before.
= gL is2 / (gs – g + gL)2 -----------(3) With the new condition, we have
• If the presence of the diode has permitted power • gL = gs
gain, the ration of the equation (3) to equation (1)
is greater than unity. Thus 2 2
 Thevenins theorem

Pmax if RL = Rth
• Thevenins theorem
• IL = Vth / (Rth + RL)
• P Max = V x IL
• = IL2RL
• = Vth2 / (Rth +RL)2 x RL
• = { Vth2 / (2RL)2 } x RL
• = Vth2 / 4RL = i2RL2 / 4RL
• = i2RL/4
• = is2/ 4gs
 Negative Resistance Amplifiers
• In equation (7)
• It is simpler to prove that 1/Ap is less than • if g =2gL
1, than it is to prove that Ap exceed 1 with
these new condition we have
• 1/Ap = 1 + {4gL2- 8gL2)/4gL2
• 1/Ap = 1 + {4gL2) / 4gL2}
• 1/ AP = {(2gL – g) 2 } / 4gL2 < 1 -------(6) • 1/Ap = 1 -1
• = {4g 2 – 4g g + g2} / 4g 2
L L L • 1/Ap = 0
• = { 4gL2 + g (g - 4gL) } / 4gL2 • i.e. Ap = ∞
• 1/ AP = 1 + {(g2- 4gLg)/ 4gL2)} ---- (7) It is seen that an amplifier containing
– ve resistance not only of power
gain, but also of infinite gain (and
therefore oscillation)
 What is a Tunnel Diode?
• Leo Esaki invented Tunnel diode
in August 1957. Therefore, it is
also called as Esaki diode.
• The materials used for this diode
are Germanium, Gallium arsenide
and other silicon materials.

Width of the Depletion Region in Tunnel Diode

• Tunnel diode shows a negative ►►When mobile charge carriers both free electrons and
resistance in their operating range. holes are missing
So, it can be used as amplifier, ►► To stop the flow of electrons from the n-type
oscillators and in any switching semiconductor and holes from the p-type semiconductor,
depletion region acts as a barrier.
circuits.
When the P-type semiconductor is heavily doped,
then the concentration of holes is higher. On the
contrary, the concentration of electrons is lower.
While in heavily doped N-type semiconductor, the
concentration of electrons is higher. On observing
the energy band diagram in this scenario, it can be
said that electrons fill the lower energy levels of the
conduction band in N-type region.
Width of the Depletion Region in Tunnel Diode

• The p-type and n-type semiconductor

is heavily doped in a tunnel diode due
to a greater number of impurities.
• Heavy doping results in a narrow
depletion region.
• When compared to a normal p-n
junction diode, tunnel diode has a
narrow depletion width.
• Therefore, when small amount of
voltage is applied, it produces enough
electric current in the tunnel diode.
Symbol of a Tunnel Diode.

The following image shows the symbol

of a Tunnel Diode.
Construction of Tunnel Diode

• A tunnel diode is usually constructed

with Gallium. The compounds of
Gallium such as Gallium Arsenide
and Gallium Antimonide are
considered appropriate for tunnel
diode.
• The reason behind this is the ratio of
the peak value of forward current
and the value of valley current.
• The value of this ratio is high in case
of Gallium which is desirable.
V-I Characteristics of Tunnel Diode

• What is a Tunnel Diode?

• A Tunnel Diode is a heavily doped p-
n junction diode.
• The tunnel diode shows negative
resistance.
• When voltage value increases, current
flow decreases.
• Tunnel diode works based on Tunnel
Effect.
 Tunneling Effect

• In electronics, Tunneling is known as a

direct flow of electrons across the small
depletion region from n-side conduction
band into the p-side valence band.
• In a p-n junction diode, both positive
and negative ions form the depletion
region.
• Due to these ions, in-built electric
potential or electric field is present in
the depletion region.
• This electric field gives an electric force
to the opposite direction of externally
applied voltage.
On the P-side the conduction band is entirely
empty. The filled band in N-type is exactly opposite
to filled side valence band on P-type. Thus, in this
case, no tunneling can take place.

 Tunneling will be there if filled band on one side

is opposite to empty band on another side.
When the forward voltage is increased further then the N-type region
further move upward. And at a particular time, the stage is reached
when no more tunneling takes place because entire electrons in the
conduction band of N-type material has moved to the P-type region.
And the empty energy levels from both P-type and N-type is opposite to
each other.

Note: Here P-region or N-region moving upwards means they are

occupying higher energy levels. This is so because when they are
biased, forward or reverse external battery source supply energy.
 Tunnelling Effect

►► As the width of the depletion layer

reduces, charge carriers can easily cross the
junction.

►► Charge carriers do not need any form of

kinetic energy to move across the junction.
Instead, carriers punch through junction.

►► This effect is called Tunneling and hence

the diode is called Tunnel Diode.
Tunnel Diode Working
P

Phenomenon
Unbiased Tunnel Diode
► Some electrons tunnel from the
conduction band of n-region to the valence
band of p-region when temperature
increases.
► Similarly, holes will move from
valence band of p-region to the conduction
band of n-region.
► Finally, the net current will be zero
since equal numbers of electrons are holes
flow in opposite direction.
Small Voltage Applied to the Tunnel Diode

►► When a small voltage, that has lesser value

than the built-in voltage of the depletion layer, is
applied to the tunnel diode, there is no flow of
forward current through the junction.

►► Minimal number of electrons from the

conduction band of n region will start tunneling
to valence band in p region.

►► Therefore, this movement creates a small

forward biased tunnel current. When a small
voltage is applied, tunnel current starts to flow.
Increased Voltage Applied to the Tunnel Diode

►► When the amount of voltage

applied is increased, the number of
free electrons generated at n side and
holes at p side is also increased. Due
to voltage increase, overlapping
between the bands are also increased.

►► Maximum tunnel current flows

when the energy level of n-side
conduction band and the energy level
of a p-side valence band becomes
equal.
Further Increased Voltage Applied to the Tunnel Diode

• A further increase in the applied

voltage will cause a slight
misalignment of the conduction band
and valence band.
• Still there will be an overlap between
conduction band and valence band.
• The electrons move from conduction
band to valence band of p region.
• Therefore, this causes small current
to flow. Hence, tunnel current starts
decreasing.
Largely Increased Voltage Applied to the Tunnel Diode
• The tunneling current will be zero when
applied voltage is increased more to the
maximum.
• At this voltage levels, the valence band and
the conduction band does not overlap. This
makes tunnel diode to operate same as a PN
junction diode.
• When applied voltage is more than the
built-in potential of the depletion layer the
forward current starts flowing through the
tunnel diode.
• In this condition, current portion in the
curve decreases when the voltage increases
and this is the negative resistance of tunnel
diode.
• Such diodes operating in negative resistance
region is used as amplifier or oscillator.
Reverse Bias Condition
• If reverse biased is applied P-region
will move up, thus energy level of P-
region will attain the higher level.
• In this case, the filled valence band
of P-region is exactly opposite to
empty conduction band of N-region.
• Therefore, current will flow in
reverse biased too because of
movement of charge carriers.
• And this current will increase with
the increase of reverse voltage.
Equivalent Circuit of Tunnel Diode
Applications of Tunnel Diode

• Tunnel diode can be used as a

switch, amplifier, and oscillator.
• Since it shows a fast response, it is
used as high frequency
component.
• Tunnel diode acts as logic memory
storage device.
• They are used in oscillator circuits,
and in FM receivers. Since it is a
low current device, it is not used
more.
Advantages of Tunnel Diode

Several advantages of tunnel diodes are:

• Tunnel diodes have less weight, high speed, low noise and low cost.
• Require very simple DC power supply.
• Low-noise figure less than (5 dB at 10 GHz) due to low current levels.
• Broadband operation is possible.
• Immune to the natural radiation in the solar system and suitable for
space communication.
• Wide range of tuning either mechanical or electrical is possible.
• For low power applications, tunnel diode replace the reflex
klystron.
 Disadvantages of Tunnel Diode

• Tunnel diode is rarely used these days and this results from its
disadvantages:
• Tunnel diode have low tunneling current and this means that they
are low power device.
• When tunnel diodes are used in oscillators as further
amplification is needed and this can only be undertaken by
devices that have a higher power capability, i.e., not tunnel
diodes.
• There are problems with the reproductively of the tunnel diodes
resulting in low yields and therefore higher production cost.
Comparison Between Tunnel Diode
and Normal P N Junction Diode
Comparison Between Tunnel Diode
and Normal P N Junction Diode
Gunn-Effect Diodes – GaAs Diode
Introduction:
▄ In early 1960, it was said that the important properties of
semiconductors depend on junctions and these had to be
made thinner and thinner as frequency was raised.
▄ Even than, high powers from such semiconductor
devices were not possible at microwave frequencies. ( Not
above X band) . Fortunately, other devices have been
invented which do not depend on junction behaviour and are
capable of producing adequate power.
 GUNN DIODE
INTRODUCTION
Gunn diode is a two terminals semiconductor electronic device also
known Transferred Electron Device (TED).
It exhibits negative resistance, used in high frequency electronics.
It is based on Gunn effect discovered in 1962 by physicist J B
Gunn. It consists only N –type semiconductor , do not contain any
p-n junction. It is fabricated only n-type mainly GaAs, InP, GaN.
It is used as a low power oscillator, generate microwave
frequency in range between 5 GHz and25 GHz.
 Gunn Effects:

• When a small d c voltage applied across a thin slice

of n type -GaAs, Gunn found that the current
fluctuations with time as shown In Fig.

• Gunn found that the period of these oscillations was

equal to the transit time of the electrons.

• Gunn also discovered that the Threshold electric

field Eth varied with the length and type of the
material.

Eth = V /L = 59 V/ 210 micro m

= 2810 Volts /sec
 Transferred electron devices (TED’s)
• Transferred electron devices (TED’s) are bulk semiconductor devices having
no junction.
• TED’s are fabricated from compound semiconductor such as GaAs (gallium
arsenide).
• TED’s operate with hot electrons whose energy is very much greater than the
thermal energy. The current in the specimen become a fluctuating function of
time.
• Then negative resistance will manifest itself under certain conditions.
Oscillations will occur if the GaAs specimen is connected to a suitable tuned
circuit.
• It is seen that the voltage across the GaAs is very high and electron velocity is
also high,
 Direct vs Indirect Band gap semiconductors
I: Silicon does not have an inherent mechanism for the emission of light; it is an
indirect band gap material, its crystal structure makes it impossible to fabricate
light emitting device,
·

■Upward or downward transition

of electron does not require
a change in momentum or
Involvement of phonon →

K =0 K =0

Fig. variation of electron energy with wave number (a) GaAs and (b) Si
II: Silicon does not exhibit an electro-optic effect known as the Pockels effect, the
traditional characteristics for the fast modulation of light.
Two valley model.
 Table: Data for two valley in GaAs

Valley Effective Mass Mobility dE

me
Lower mel = 0.068 µ el =8000 cm2v-1 sec-1 0.036eV
Upper meu = 1.20 µ eu =180 cm2v-1 sec-1

L= Lowe mass, High mobility

V= High mass, Less Mobility
** Electrons have been transferred from the conduction band to a higher
energy band in which they are much less mobile and thus current has
reduced as voltage rise.
 Gunn diode oscillator
• A Gunn diode oscillator can be
designed by mounting the diode inside
a waveguide cavity formed by a short-
circuit termination at one end and by
an iris at other end diode is mounted
at the center perpendicular to the
broad wall where the electric field
component is maximum under the
dominant TE 10 mode.
• The intrinsic frequency f0 of the
oscillation depends on the electron
drift velocity vd due to high field
domain through the effective length
 Disadvantages of Gunn Diodes

►Gunn diode is very much temperature dependent i.e., a

frequency shift of 0.5 to 3 MHz per °C.

► By proper design this frequency shift can be reduced to 50 kHz

for a range of - 40°C to 70°C.

► Other disadvantages of Gunn diode is, the power output of the

Gunn diode is limited by difficulty of heat dissipation from the
small chip.
 Applications of Gunn Diode
Gunn diode can be used as an amplifier and as an
oscillator.
The applications of Gunn diode are

●In broadband linear amplifier.

● In radar transmitters.
● Used in transponders for air traffic control.
● In fast combinational and sequential logic circuit.
● In low and medium power oscillators in
microwave receivers.
 Device Structure:
There is a variety of structures that are used for the IMPATT diode like
p+-n-i-n+
n+-p-i-p+
p+-n-n+
p+-i-n+
 Consists of Two regions
(1) Avalanche region (region with
relatively high doping and high
field) in which avalanche
multiplication occurs
(2) Drift region (region with
essentially intrinsic doping and
constant field) in which the
generated holes drift towards
the contact
19
5
 Principle of Operation
Impact Ionization:

If a free electron with sufficient energy strikes a silicon atom, it can break the
covalent bond of silicon and liberate an electron from the covalent bond. If the
electron liberated gain energy by being in an electrical field and liberate other
electrons from other covalent bonds then this processes can cascade very quickly
into a chain reaction producing a large number of electrons and a large current flow.
This phenomenon is called impact avalanche.

 At break down, the n-region is punched through and forms the avalanche region
of the diode. The high resistivity region is the drift zone through which the
avalanche generated electrons move towards the anode.
 Parametric Amplifier

High-frequency amplifier whose operation is

based on time variations in a parameter (such as
reactance) and which converts the energy at the
frequency of an alternating current into energy at
the input signal frequency in such a way as to
amplify the signal.
 Parametric Amplifier
 In parametric amplifier varactor diode is used. Capacitance parameter
of the diode is varied periodically using a suitable pump signal so the
name of the amplifier is parametric amplifier.
High-frequency amplifier whose operation is based on time variations
in a parameter (such as reactance) and which converts the energy at the
frequency of an alternating current into energy at the input signal
frequency in such a way as to amplify the signal.
A parametric amplifier circuit provides adjustable amplification and
up/down conversion of an input analog signal. This is done by applying
a second sinusoidal signal, called a pump signal, to a nonlinear reactive
circuit element.