UNIT III SENSING AND MACHINE VISION

 Range sensing - Proximity sensing - Touch

sensing - Force and Torque sensing.
Introduction to Machine vision - Sensing and
digitizing - Image processing and analysis.
SENSOR
 Sensor is a basic component of transducer.
 The purpose of a sensor is to respond to some kind of
an input physical property and to convert it into an
electrical signal which is compatible with electronic
circuits.
 The sensor output signal may be in the form of voltage,
current, or charge .
SENSOR TYPES
A. Based on power requirement:
1. Active: require external power, called excitation
signal, for the operation
2. Passive: directly generate electrical signal in
response to the external stimulus
B. Based on sensor placement:
1. Contact sensors
2. Non-contact sensors
WHY DO ROBOTS NEED
SENSORS?
 Provides “awareness” of surroundings
 What’s ahead, around, “out there”?
 Allows interaction with environment

 Robot lawn mower can “see” cut grass

 Protection & Self-Preservation

 Safety, Damage Prevention, Stairwell

sensor
 Gives the robot capability to goal-seek

 Find colorful objects, seek goals

 Makes robots “interesting”
WHAT CAN BE SENSED?
 Light
 Presence, color, intensity, content (mod), direction
 Sound
 Presence, frequency, intensity, content (mod), direction
 Heat
 Temperature, wavelength, magnitude, direction
 Chemicals
 Presence, concentration, identity, etc.
 Object Proximity
 Presence/absence, distance, bearing, color, etc.
 Physical orientation/attitude/position
 Magnitude, pitch, roll, yaw, coordinates, etc.
 Magnetic & Electric Fields
 Presence, magnitude, orientation, content (mod)
 Resistance (electrical, indirectly via V/I)
 Presence, magnitude, etc.
 Capacitance (via excitation/oscillation)
 Presence, magnitude, etc.
 Inductance (via excitation/oscillation)
 Presence, magnitude, etc.
PROXIMITY SENSOR
 Proximity sensors are devices that indicate when one
object is close to another object.
 The distances can be several millimeters and feet.
 Widely used in general industrial automation
 – Conveyor lines (counting, jam detection, etc)
 – Machine tools (safety interlock, sequencing)
 Usually digital (on/off) sensors detecting the presence
or absence of an object
FORCE SENSOR
 The fundamental operating principles of force, acceleration,
and torque instrumentation are closely allied to the
piezoelectric and strain gage devices used to measure static
and dynamic pressures.
 Piezoelectric sensor produces a voltage when it is "squeezed"
by a force that is proportional to the force applied.
 Difference between these devices and static force detection
devices such as strain gages is that the electrical signal
generated by the crystal decays rapidly after the application
of force.
 The high impedance electrical signal generated by the
piezoelectric crystal is converted to a low impedance signal
suitable for such an instrument as a digital storage
oscilloscope.
 Depending on the application requirements, dynamic force
can be measured as either compression, tensile, or torque
force.
 Applications may include the measurement of spring or
sliding friction forces, chain tensions, clutch release forces.
TORQUE SENSORS
 Torque is measured by either sensing the actual shaft
deflection caused by a twisting force, or by detecting
the effects of this deflection.
 The surface of a shaft under torque will experience
compression and tension, as shown in Figure.
 To measure torque, strain gage elements usually are
mounted in pairs on the shaft, one gauge measuring the
increase in length (in the direction in which the surface
is under tension), the other measuring the decrease in
length in the other direction.
TACTILE SENSOR
 Tactile sensor are devices which measures the
parameters of a contact between the sensor and an
object.
 A tactile sensor consists of an array of touch
sensitive sites, the sites may be capable of measuring
more than one property.
 The contact forces measured by a sensor are able to
convey a large amount of information about the state
of a grip.
 Texture, slip, impact and other contact conditions
generate force and position signatures, that can be
used to identify the state of a manipulation.
FORCE/TORQUE
MEASUREMENT
 Force and torque measurement finds application in
many practical and experimental studies as well as
in control applications.
 Force-motion causality. When measuring force, it
can be critical to understand whether force is the
input or output to the sensor.
 Design of a force sensors relies on deflection, so
measurement of motion or displacement can be
used to measure force, and in this way the two are
intimately related.
DESIGN OF A FORCE SENSOR
 Consider a simple sensor that is to be developed to
measure a reaction force at the base of a spring, as
shown below.
Sensor Mechanisms for Force
 In the force sensor design given, no specific
sensing mechanism was implied. The constraint
placed on the stiffness exists for any type of force
sensor.
 It is clear, however, that the force sensor will have

to respond to a force and provide an output

voltage. This can be done in different ways.
SENSING MECHANISMS
 To measure force, it is usually necessary to design a
mechanical structure that determines the stiffness.
This structure may itself be a sensing material.
 Force will induce stress, leading to strain which can
be
detected, most commonly, by
– strain gages (via piezoresistive effect)
– some crystals or ceramics (via piezoelectric
effect)
 Force can also be detected using a displacement
sensor, such as an LVDT.
STRAIN-GAGE FORCE SENSOR
DESIGN
 Let’s consider now the force sensor studied earlier,
and consider a design that will use one strain gage
on an axially loaded material.
STRAIN GUAGES
 Many types of force\torque sensors are based on
strain gage measurements.
 The measurements can be directly related to

stress and force and may be used to measure

other types of variables including displacement
and acceleration
WHAT’S A STRAIN GAUGE?
 The electrical resistance of a length of wire
varies in direct proportion to the change in any
strain applied to it. That’s the principle upon
which the strain gauge works.
 The most accurate way to measure this change in
resistance is by using the wheatstone bridge.
 The majority of strain gauges are foil types,
available in a wide choice of shapes and sizes to
suit a variety of applications.
 They consist of a pattern of resistive foil which
is mounted on a backing material.
STRAIN GAUGE CONTD..
 They operate on the principle that as the foil is
subjected to stress, the resistance of the foil
changes in a defined way.
STRAIN GAUGE
CONFIGURATION
 The strain gauge is
connected into a wheatstone
Bridge circuit with a
combination of four active
gauges(full bridge),two
guages (half bridge) or,less
commonly, a single gauge
(quarter bridge).
GUAGE FACTOR
 A fundamental parameter of the strain guage is
its sensitivity to strain, expressed quantitatively
as the guage factor (GF).

 Guage factor is defined as the ratio of fractional

change in electrical resistance to the fractional
change in length (strain).
STRAIN GUAGE CONTD..
 The complete wheatstone brigde is excited with
a stabilized DC supply.
 As stress is applied to the bonded strain guage, a

resistive change takes place and unbalances the

wheatstone bridge which results in signal output
with respect to stress value.
 As the signal value is small the signal

conditioning electronics provides amplification

to increase the signal.
TORQUE SENSOR
 Torque is a measure of the forces that causes an object
to rotate.

 Reaction torque sensors measure static and dynamic

torque with a stationary or non-rotating transducer.

 Rotary torque sensors use rotary transducers to

measure torque.
TECHNOLOGY
 Magnetoelastic : A magnetoelastic torque sensor
detects changes in permeability by measuring
changes in its own magnetic field.
 Piezoelectric : A piezoelectric material is compressed
and generates a charge, which is measured by a
charge amplifier.
 Strain guage : To measure torque,strain guage
elements usually are mounted in pairs on the
shaft,one guage measuring the increase in length the
other measuring the decrease in the other direction.
FIGURES SHOWING TORQUE
SENSORS
TORQUE MEASUREMENT
 The need for torque measurements has led to
several methods of acquiring reliable data from
objects moving. A torque sensor, or transducer,
converts torque into an electrical signal.
 The most common transducer is a strain guage that

converts torque into a change in electrical

resistance.
 The strain guage is bonded to a beam or structural

member that deforms when a torque or force is

applied.
TORQUE MEASUREMENT
CONTD..
 Deflection induces a stress that changes its resistance.
A wheatstone bridge converts the resistance change
into a calibrated output signal.
 The design of a reaction torque cell seeks to eliminate
side loading (bending) and axial loading, and is
sensitive only to torque loading.
 The sensor’s output is a function of force and
distance, and is usually expressed in inch-pounds,
foot-pounds or Newton-meters.
CLASSIFICATION OF TORQUE
SENSORS
 Torques can be divided into two major
categories, either static or dynamic.

 The methods used to measure torque can be

further divided into two more categories, either
reaction or in-line.

 A dynamic force involves acceleration, were a

static force does not.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TORQUE
SENSORS CONTD..
 In reaction method the dynamic torque produced
by an engine would be measured by placing an
inline torque sensor between the crankshaft and
the flywheel, avoiding the rotational inertia of
the flywheel and any losses from the
transmission.
 In-line torque measurements are made by

inserting a torque sensor between torque

carrying components, much like inserting an
excitation between a socket and a socket wrench.
TECHNICAL OBSTACLES
 Getting power to the gages over the
stationary/rotating gap and getting the signal
back.

 The methods to bridge the gap are either contact

or non-contact.
CONTACT/NON-CONTACT
METHODS
 Contact: slip rings are used in contact-type
torque sensors to apply power to and retrive the
signal from strain gages mounted on the rotating
shaft.

 Non-contact: the rotary transformer couples the

strain gages for power and signal return. The
rotary transformer works on the same principle
as any conventional transformer except either the
primary or secondary coils rotate.
APPLICATIONS OF
FORCE/TORQUE SENSORS
 In robotic tactile and manufacturing applications
 In control systems when motion feedback is
employed.
 In process testing, monitoring and diagnostics
applications.
 In measurement of power transmitted through a
rotating device.
 In controlling complex non-linear mechanical
systems.
 TACTILE SENSORS
 Tactile and touch sensor are devices which
measures the parameters of a contact between the
sensor and an object.
 Def: This is the detection and measurement of the
spatial distribution of forces perpendicular to a
predetermined sensory area, and the subsequent
interpretation of the spatial information.
 used to sense a diverse range of stimulus ranging
from detecting the presence or absence of a grasped
object to a complete tactile image.
TACTILE SENSORS CONTD...
 A tactile sensor consists of an array of touch sensitive sites,
the sites may be capable of measuring more than one
property.
 The contact forces measured by a sensor are able to convey a
large amount of information about the state of a grip.
 Texture, slip, impact and other contact conditions generate
force and position signatures, that can be used to identify the
state of a manipulation.
 This information can be determined by examination of the
frequency domain .
DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF A
TACTILE SENSOR
 A touch sensor should ideally be a single-point contact, though
the sensory area can be any size. In practice, an area of 1-2
mm2 is considered a satisfactory.
 The sensitivity of the touch sensor is dependent on a number of
variables determined by the sensor's basic physical
characteristic.
 A sensitivity within the range 0.4 to 10N, is considered
satisfactory for most industrial applications.
 A minimum sensor bandwidth is of 100 Hz.
 The sensor’s characteristics must be stable and
repeatable with low hysteresis. A linear response is not
absolutely necessary, as information processing
techniques can be used to compensate for any moderate
non-linearities.
 As the touch sensor will be used in an industrial
application, it will need to be robust and protected from
environmental damage.
 If a tactile array is being considered, the majority of
application can be undertaken by an array 10-20 sensors
square, with a spatial resolution of 1-2 mm.
TACTILE SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
 Many physical principles have been exploited in the
development of tactile sensors. As the technologies
involved are very diverse, in most cases, the
developments in tactile sensing technologies are
application driven.
 Conventional sensors can be modified to operate
with non-rigid materials.
• Mechanically based sensors
• Resistive based sensors
• Force sensing resistor
• Capacitive based sensors
• Magnetic based sensor
• Optical Sensors
• Optical fibre based sensors
• Piezoelectric sensors
• Strain gauges in tactile sensors
• Silicon based sensors
• Multi-stimuli Touch Sensors
MECHANICALLY BASED
SENSORS

 The simplest form of touch sensor is one where

the applied force is applied to a conventional
mechanical micro-switch to form a binary touch
sensor.
 The force required to operate the switch will be

determined by its actuating characteristics and

any external constraints.
 Other approaches are based on a mechanical

movement activating a secondary device such as

a potentiometer or displacement transducer.
RESISTIVE BASED SENSORS
 The majority of industrial analogue touch or tactile
sensors that have been used are based on the principle
of resistive sensing. This is due to the simplicity of
their design and interface to the robotic system.
 The use of compliant materials that have a defined
force-resistance characteristics have received
considerable attention in touch and tactile sensor
research.
 The basic principle of this type of sensor is the
measurement of the resistance of a conductive
elastomer or foam between two points.
 The majority of the sensors use an elastomer that
consists of a carbon doped rubber.
 In adjacent sensor the
resistance of the
elastomer changes with
the application of force,
resulting from the
deformation of the
elastomer altering the
particle density.
RESISTIVE SENSORS CONTD..
 If the resistance measurement is taken between
opposing surfaces of the elastomer, the upper contacts
have to be made using a flexible printed circuit to
allow movement under the applied force.
 Measurement from one side can easily be achieved by
using a dot-and-ring arrangement on the substrate.
 Resistive sensors have also been developed using
elastomer cords laid in a grid pattern, with the
resistance measurements being taken at the points of
intersection.
 Arrays with 256-elements have been constructed. This
type of sensor easily allows the construction of a
tactile image of good resolution.
DISADVANTAGES OF THE CONDUCTIVE
ELASTOMER OR FOAM BASED SENSOR :

 An elastomer has a long nonlinear time constant. In addition the

time constant of the elastomer, when force is applied, is different
from the time constant when the applied force is removed.
 The force-resistance characteristic of elastomer based sensors
are highly nonlinear, requiring the use of signal processing
algorithms.
 Due to the cyclic application of forces experience by a tactile
sensor, the resistive medium within the elastomer will migrates
over a period of time.
 Additionally, the elastomer will become permanently deformed
and fatigue leading to permanent deformation of the sensor. This
will give the sensor a poor long-term stability and will require
replacement after an extended period of use.
MACHINE VISION

 It is the process of applying a range of

technologies and methods to provide
imaging-based automatic inspection, process
control and robot guidance in industrial
applications.
 The primary uses for machine vision are

automatic inspection and robot guidance.

Common MV applications include quality
assurance, sorting, material handling, robot
guidance, and optical gauging.
 creates a model of the real world from images

recovers useful information about a scene from

its two dimensional projections
STAGES OF MACHINE VISION:
IMAGE FORMATION
 Perspective Projection
 Orthographic projection
IMAGE PROCESSING
 Filtering, Smoothing, Thinning ,
Expending ,Shrinking ,Compressing
IMAGE SEGMENTATION
 Classify pixels into groups having similar
characteristics
IMAGE ANALYSIS
 Measurements: Size, Position, Orientation,
Spatial relationship, Gray scale or color
intensity
SENSING AND DIGITIZING
 Image sensing requires some type of image
formation device such as camera and a digitizer
which stores a video frame in the computer
memory. We divide the sensing and digitizing into
several steps. The initial step involves capturing
the image of the scene with the vision camera. The
image consists of relative light intensities
corresponding to the various portions of the scene.
These light intensities are continuous analog values
which must be sampled and converted into digital
form.
 The second step of digitixing is achieved by an
analog –to –digital converter. The A/D converter is
either a part of a digital video camera or the front
end of a frame grabber. The choice is dependent on
the type of hardware system. The frame grabber,
representing the third step is an image storage and
computation device which stores a given pixel
array.
IMAGE PROCESSING AND
ANALYSIS

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