Myths in Psychology

• People are right-brained or left-brained

• You can’t grow new neurons
• We only use 10% of our brain
• About 100 years ago, Hans Berger used an
E.E.G. Machine to see or hear the electric
pulses (action potentials) that neurons make.
 Lead Singers and Back Up Vocals
• It’s not just neurons that communicate.
• 900 billion Glial Cells do too!
• Glia used to be thought of as just helper cells
or butlers.
• They didn’t show up on EEG’s
• They send and receive chemical signals to and
from each other and neurons.
 That’s the How. Let’s Talk About
the What
• What information does the neural system
send?
• Thoughts, understanding, inspiration, insight.
• We can measure how loud a noise is
(Sensation).
• We can measure how much a person flinches
(Reflex).
That’s the How. Let’s talk about the What

• What information does the neural system

send?
• Thoughts, understanding, inspiration, insight.
• We can measure how loud a noise is
(Sensation).
• Illustration of spinal reflex pathway.
 They’re Not the S.A.M.E.
• Sensory neurons:
• - Different for each different sense
• - Respond to non-chemical stimulation
• - Afferent signals arrive at the brain
• Motor neurons:
• - Connected to muscles
• - The only way our thoughts can exist in the real world
• - Efferent signals exit the brain
 Takeaways
• There are more than ten times more glia than
neurons.
• Glia can communicate with other cells but not
with electricity.
• Sensory neurons receive raw material from
the body's sense organs.
• Motor neurons are connected to muscle fibers
and can make the muscle contract.
Myelin Sheath

A fatty substance encasing most neurons in the brain

Myelin protects and insulates the axon, speeding up transmission of nerve impulses

Many disorders are linked to problems in the creation or deterioration of myelin

(such as multiple sclerosis)
Number Your Paper from 1 to 5

Can you accurately match the names of the various parts of the neuron to
the diagram?
Summary of Neural Firing

Neurons fire when there is a shift in electrical energy > creating an

action potential

When the action potential reaches the terminal buttons, neurotransmitters are
released into the synapse.

Neurotransmitters lock into the dendrites of the next neuron.

Some neurotransmitters are excitatory, others are inhibitory.

= Excitatory > makes the next neuron more likely to fire

= Inhibitory > makes the next neuron less likely to fire

Synapse or Synaptic Gap

After each terminal button, there is a synapse 1or synaptic gap.

Neurotransmitters cross this gap and lock into the dendrite of

the postsynaptic neuron.
A quick acronym to help you remember the
progression of neural firing:

DSATs
The Neuron: Some Basics

- Building blocks of the nervous system

- Several different types, some of which have great specificity (for example,
feature detector cells)

- Jobs:
- Receive messages
- Carry messages
- Send messages
- All of this is done in milliseconds, with neural impulses travelling as fast
as 330 mph

- How does any thought occur?

- Cells fire in a particular pattern
A Neural Chain

- Neuron fires

- Synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters from the axon

terminals

- Neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and fit into the

postsynaptic receptor site like a lock and key
Basics of Neural Firing

- Resting potential: —70 millivolts > Polarized

- Po = Positive outside

- Firing threshold

- All or none law: Once at threshold, the neuron will fire, and it will fire
with the
same intensity every time.

- Action potential: An electrical impulse that travels down the axon

- This change in electricity creates a positive electrical charge (+30

millivolts)
inside the neuron. This process is called depolarization.

- Refractory period: A brief period where the neuron can’t fire again

- Reuptake: The sending neuron recollects neurotransmitters

Multiple-Choice Practice

Which of the following is the best description of reuptake?

A. It is the electrical impulse the travels down the axon.

B. It is when the neuron is ready to fire, but it needs chemical inputs to

reach the firing threshold.

C. It is the brief period of time in which a neuron is unable to emit

another action potential.

D. It is the process of the presynaptic neuron recollecting neurotransmitters from

the synapse
Neurotransmitters in Brief

- Chemical messengers of the nervous system

- Neurotransmitters vs. hormones

- Each neurotransmitter has a different impact on thinking and behavior

- Excitatory or inhibitory
Glutamate and GABA—A Delicate Balancing Act

Glutamate
- Most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter
- Enhances learning and memory by strengthening synaptic connections

GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid)

- Most abundant inhibitory neurotransmitter
- Associated with various anxiety-related disorders
Glutamate Mnemonic

- Remember, this is the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter.

- Mnemonic: Think how excited you would be if you were glued to your mate.
GABA Mnemonic

- It is the brakes of your CNS

- Mnemonic:
Get
A
Brake
Adjustment
Acetylcholine (ACh)

- Found in both the central and peripheral nervous systems

- All movement involves Ach
- Involved in learning and memory (and many other functions!)

- Alzheimer’s disease is associated with diminished ACh functioning

Acetylcholine Mnemonic

- Focus on the ACE part of acetylcholine.

- To hit an ACE in tennis, you need acetylcholine.

- To ACE your upcoming psych exam, you need acetylcholine.

Dopamine

- Linked to the anticipation of pleasurable or rewarding activities

- Also involved in movement, attention, and learning

- Lack of dopamine is associated with Parkinson’s

- Excess dopamine is associated with schizophrenia

Dopamine Mnemonic

- Maybe use the “p” to remind yourself that dopamine is linked to pleasure
and Parkinson’s.

OR

Think dopaMINE!
- It's mine, mine, mine > because we are consumed with the pursuit of
pleasure
Endorphins

- Body’s natural painkiller— involved in pain reduction and reward

- Can be stimulated by intense and prolonged exercise, creating euphoric

feelings

- Mnemonic:
- Endorphins end pain
Epinephrine (Adrenaline)

- Both a neurotransmitter and hormone ~> boosts energy

- Primary chemical in “fight or flight” responses

Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)

- Arousal, alertness, vigilance (heightened sensitivity to what is going on around

you)

- Heavily involved in sleep cycle

- Low levels associated with depression

Serotonin

- Plays a significant role in mood, appetite, sleep, and dreams

- Low levels have been associated with depression

- Mnemonic: Serotonin—think “rotten’—you try to avoid rotten food, rotten

moods, and rotten nights of sleep
Agonists and Antagonists

- Psychoactive drugs and some other substances have a direct impact on one or more
neurotransmitters at the synapse.

- Psychoactive drugs work as agonists or antagonists based on how they influence neural
transmission.
Agonists

- Agonists enhance the actions of neurotransmitters in various ways.

- Direct agonists mimic the neurotransmitter and bind with the

receptor of the next neuron.

- Indirect agonists can block reuptake of a neurotransmitter; these are also known
as reuptake inhibitors.
Heroin

- An agonist for endorphins

- Heroin is a mimic—the receptor site can’t distinguish between an endorphin and the
chemical structure of heroin.
Nicotine

- An agonist for ACh (acetylcholine)

- Stimulates skeletal muscles and causes increased heart rate

Black Widow Venom: A Toxin

- Also an agonist for ACh (acetylcholine)

- Causes ACh to be released continuously at neuromuscular junctions

Reuptake Inhibitors

- Another way that a drug can act as an agonist is to act as a reuptake inhibitor.
Reuptake Inhibitors—Prozac

- Prozac inhibits the reuptake of serotonin. This floods the synapse with
serotonin.
Reuptake Inhibitors: Cocaine

- Cocaine inhibits the reuptake of dopamine.

- In doing so, the synapse is flooded with dopamine.

Antagonists

- Inhibit the actions of neurotransmitters in various ways

- often bind to a receptor but do not stimulate it

- Block a neurotransmitter from being released by the terminal or from

binding to the receptor site
Botox: a toxin

- an antagonist for ACh (acetylcholine)

- Blocks ACh from reaching receptors

- Affected muscles can’t move

Thorazine - an early drug for Schizophrenia

- an antagonist for dopamine

- blocks dopamine receptors, thereby blocking the transmission of dopamine

What do most psychoactive drugs have in common?

- they alter mental states

- activate dopamine-produicing neurons in the brain’s reward system.

- this increase in dopamine is associated with greater reward, which can lead to a
stronger desire to take the drug again

- many drugs create tolerance: needing increasing amounts of the drug to create
the original high/desired effect.

- many drugs lead to physical dependence: with repeated use, a person may need
to administer the drug to prevent withdrawal symtoms.

- the effect of a drug is primarily dependent on which neurotransmitter(s) is

affected.
All psychoacitve drugs influence synaptic transmission

- all psychoactive drugs have a direct impact on one or more

neurotransmitters at the synapse.

- psychoactive drugs can be classfied as agonists or antagonists based

on how they influence neural transmission
Blood-brain barrier

- abarrier that allows some chemicals to pass from the blood into the brain
but prevents other structures from entering

- all drugs discussed here are able to pass this barrier to get from the blood
into the brain.
categories of psychoactive drugs

- depressants

- opioids

- stimulants

- hallucinogens / psychdelics
Depressants

- slow or inhibit central nervous system functions

- create drowsiness, sedation or sleep - relieve anxiety and

lower inhibition

- combining depressants can be deadly

Depressants: Alcohol

- 2nd most widely used drug in United Sates

- Agonist for GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

- Lessens inhibitions by depressing brain centers repsonsible for judgement and

self-control
Opiates/Opioids

- agonist for endorphins

- heroin, oxycodone, fentanyl

- increadibly addictive and create powerful withdrawal symptoms

Stimulants

- activate sympathetic nervous system

- increase brain activity, arouse behaviour, and crease mental alertness

Stimulants: caffeine

- most widely used drug in the world

- promotes wakefulness, mental alertness, and faster thought processes by

stimulating release of dopamine

- antagonist for adenosine - blocks sleep-inducing effects

- is physically addictive and creates withdrawal symptoms

Stimulants: Cocaine

- Dopamine agonist (reuptake inhibitor); also elevates serotonin and

norepinephrine

- intense euphoria, alertness, and heightened self-confidence

- crash after high dissipates

- highly addictive