Introduction to

Psychology

Course instructor: Ms. Mahnoor

Arif
INTELLIGENCE

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Intelligence is “the capacity to acquire and apply
knowledge.”

Intelligence includes the ability to benefit from past

experience, act purposefully, solve problems, and
adapt to new situations.

Intelligence can also be defined as “the ability that

intelligence tests measure.”
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 MEASURING INTELLIGENCE
◦ Intelligence can be measured through intelligence tests through
the use of a battery of tests (collection of tests) which
is preferred over a single test.
The History of Measurement of Intelligence
Historically, the first effort at intelligence testing was based on an
uncomplicated but completely wrong assumption: that the size
and shape of a person’s head could be used as an objective
measure of intelligence. The idea was put forward by Sir Francis
Galton (1822–1911), an eminent English scientist whose ideas in
other domains proved to be considerably better than his notions
about intelligence
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◦ The first real intelligence tests were developed by the French
psychologist Alfred Binet (1857–1911). His tests followed
from a simple premise: If performance on certain tasks or test
items improved with chronological, or physical, age, performance
could be used to distinguish more intelligent people from less
intelligent ones within a particular age group. On the basis of this
principle, Binet devised the first formal intelligence test, which
was designed to identify the “dullest” students in the Paris school
system in order to provide them with remedial aid

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◦ The main idea was that intelligence can be measured in
terms of performance of a child. If performance on certain
tasks, that were the test items, improved with age then it
could be taken as an indication of intelligence of a person.

◦ By developing tasks on which people's performance

improved with age, a measure could be devised which could
distinguish intelligent people from those not intelligent.

◦ Using the same concept Binet developed the first

intelligence test in 1905.

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 The Concept of Mental Age
◦ Children taking the Binet-Simon test were assigned a score that
corresponded to the age group they belonged to. This score indicated
their "mental age".
◦ Mental age referred to the average age of children who secured the
same score. Mental age can be understood as the typical intelligence
level found for people at a given chronological age.
◦ Mental age of a person can be different from his or her chronological
age i.e., it can be above or below that. It could reflect whether or not a
child was performing at a level at which his age mates were.
◦ Mental age, which is your cognitive abilities relative to what others
can do of different ages. In other words, what do you think an average
five year old can do? Can they read? Can they do math? What about
the average ten year old? Or how about someone who is 40 years old?
Your mental age is what you are capable of doing, scaled to what the
average people of different ages can do. 7
 ◦ Measure of an individual’s age based on the
calendar date on which he or she was
Chronological born. Chronological age is calculated on most
age
psychological tests. It is measured in days,
months and years.

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◦ If we compare the mental age of a person to the person’s
chronological age, the result is the intelligence quotient (IQ), a
measure of intelligence that is adjusted for age. A simple way to
calculate IQ is by using the following formula:

◦ IQ = mental age ÷ chronological age × 100.

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◦Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

◦Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

◦Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (SB5)

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 FACTOR THEORY
Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory
The English psychologist, Charles Spearman (1863-1945), in 1904
proposed his theory of intelligence called two-factor theory.

According to him intellectual abilities are comprised of two factors,

namely; the general ability known as G-factor and specific
Abilities known as S-factors.

According to Spearman (1904) all intelligent abilities have an area

of overlap, which he called “g” for general ability. Each ability also
depends partly on an “s” factor for specific ability. According to
Spearman… the “g” factor is the dominant ability when doing
tasks. The “s” factors are the lesser abilities.
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◦ G-Factor: When a score is calculated and
averaged across abilities, a general intelligence
factor is established. It is meant to represent how
generally intelligent you are based on your
performance on this type of intelligence test.

◦ S-Factor: Commonly measured s-factors of

intelligence include memory, attention and
concentration, verbal comprehension,
vocabulary, spatial skills, and abstract reasoning.

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 Characteristics of ‘G’ Factor:
◦ It is universal inborn ability.

◦ It is general mental energy.

◦ It is constant.

◦ The amount of ‘g’ differs from individual to individual.

◦ It is used in every activity of life.

◦ Greater the ‘g’ in an individual, greater is his success

in life.
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 Characteristics of ‘S’ Factor:

◦It is learned and acquired in the environment.

◦It varies from activity to activity in the same

individual.
◦Individuals differ in the amount of ‘S’ ability.

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 CATTELL’S VIEW OF INTELLIGENCE -
INTELLIGENCE AS A FEW BASIC ABILITIES

◦ Psychologists continue to divide general intelligence into

specific factors. The Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory of Cognitive
Abilities (CHC Theory) proposes that “g” is comprised of
multiple cognitive abilities that when taken as a whole
produce “g.”
◦ This theory comprises 2 important types of intelligence:

1. Fluid intelligence

2. Crystallized intelligence 16
1. Fluid Intelligence
◦ The ability to think on the spot and solve novel problems
◦ The ability to perceive relationships
◦ The ability to gain new types of knowledge

◦ Fluid intelligence encompasses the ability to reason

abstractly. If we were asked to solve an analogy, group a
series of letters according to some criterion, or remember a
set of numbers, we would be using fluid intelligence.
◦ We use fluid intelligence when we’re trying to rapidly solve a
puzzle
It is not influenced by education, formal training,
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2. Crystallized Intelligence
◦Factual knowledge about the world

◦The skills already learned and practiced

◦Examples

◦Arithmetic facts

◦Knowledge of the meaning of words

◦State capitals
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2. Crystalized intelligence
◦ It reflects our ability to call up information from long-term memory.
◦ The accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that are
learned through experience and can be applied in problem-solving
situations.
◦ We would be likely to rely on crystallized intelligence, for instance,
if we were asked to participate in a discussion about the solution to
the causes of poverty, a task that allows us to draw on our own
past experiences and knowledge of the world.
◦ In contrast to fluid intelligence, which reflects a more general kind
of intelligence, crystallized intelligence is more a reflection of the
culture in which a person is raised.
It is influenced by culture, education and formal learning and
training
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◦ The researcher suggest that crystallized intelligence
peaks later in life might be due to the fact that people
today have more education, greater access to information,
and more mentally demanding jobs than did previous
generations of adults.

◦ The results suggest that while older brains might indeed

be slower, they are likely to still be more accurate,
knowledgeable, and better able to assess the moods and
emotional states of others. 21
◦ The researchers are continuing their online
research by introducing more cognitive tasks as
well as tests designed to measure language
abilities, executive function, and social and
emotional intelligence. They also agree that further
investigations are needed to determine exactly why
mental powers peak at different ages.

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◦Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
◦The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in
1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at
Harvard University.
◦It suggests that the traditional notion of intelligence,
based on I.Q. testing, is far too limited.
◦ Instead, Dr. Gardner proposes eight different
intelligences to account for a broader range of human
potential in children and adults.
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• Linguistics - sensitivity to the meanings and sounds of words,
mastery of syntax, appreciation of the ways language can be
used
• Logical-Mathematical - Understanding of objects and
symbols and of actions that be performed on them and of the
relations between these actions, ability to identify problems
and seek explanations
• Spatial - capacity to perceive the visual world accurately, to
perform transformations upon perceptions and to re-create
aspects of visual experience in the absence of physical stimuli

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◦ Musical - Sensitivity to individual tones and phrases of music,
an understanding of ways to combine tones and phrases into
larger musical rhythms and structures, awareness of emotional
aspects of music
◦ Bodily-Kinesthetic - Use of one’s body in highly skilled ways
for expressive or goal-directed purposes, capacity to handle
objects skillfully
◦ Interpersonal - Ability to notice and make distinctions among
the moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions of
other people and potentially to act on this knowledge
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◦Intrapersonal - access to one’s own feelings,
ability to draw on one’s emotions to guide and
understand one’s behavior, recognition of
personal strengths and weaknesses

◦Naturalistic - sensitivity and understanding of

plants, animals, and other aspects of nature

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◦ Dr. Gardner says that our schools and culture focus most of their
attention on linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence. We
esteem the highly articulate or logical people of our culture.

◦ However, Dr. Gardner says that we should also place equal

attention on individuals who show gifts in the other intelligences:
the artists, architects, musicians, naturalists, designers, dancers,
therapists, entrepreneurs, and others who enrich the world in
which we live.

◦ Unfortunately, many children who have these gifts don’t receive

much reinforcement for them in school. Many of these kids, in fact,
end up being labeled “learning disabled.”
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The theory of multiple intelligences gives adults a
whole new way to look at their lives, examining
potentials that they left behind in their childhood (such
as a love for art or drama) but now have the
opportunity to develop through courses, hobbies, or
other programs of self-development.

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