L7

Nuclear
Forces

Prepared by
Dr. Fahmida Sharmin
Assistant Professor
Dept. of NSc
Nuclear Force
The repulsive force between protons inside a nucleus is quite large. This
force needs to be counterbalanced by an extra attractive force; this is the
strong nuclear force.
Nuclear forces have the following properties:
(i) The forces are strongly attractive in the range of 1~2 fm (femto
meters) and repulsive at a distance of 0.8 fm. Thus the inter-nucleon
forces are attractive in nature except when the nucleons are too close
or too far apart.
(ii) The forces are of short range type and the magnitude of forces
decreases very rapidly for distance beyond 2 fm.
(iii)The forces are charge independent, i.e., p-n, or n-n or p-p are identical.
(iv)The forces between the neutrons and the protons show the property of
saturation. This property is a consequence of short-ranged nature; A
particular nucleon will interact with its nearest neighbors.
Mass Defect and Binding Energy
Mass Defect and Binding Energy

An atom comprises a nucleus at the center and electrons revolving

around it in an orbital fashion. Nuclei constitute of Protons and Neutrons,
Combined called nucleons. Thus, we expect that mass of the nucleus will
be the same as the sum of individual masses of neutrons and protons.
But it is not true. The total mass of the nucleus(M) is less than the sum of
individual masses of neutrons and protons which in fact constitutes it.
This difference in the mass is called mass defect given by, m =
Zmp+Nmn­ – M(A, Z)

Where,
Zmp is the total mass of the protons.
Nmn is the total mass of the neutrons.
M is the mass of the nucleus.

According to Einstein’s theory of relativity, The mass-energy is

equivalent. That is the mass of a system measures the total energy of
the system. Given by the famous equation E=mc2.
Hence, it is implied that the total energy of the nucleus is less than the
sum of the energies of individual protons and neutrons(nucleons). This
implies that when the nucleus disintegrates into constituent nucleons
releasing some energy in the form of heat energy. (Exothermic reaction).
The energy emitted here2 is mathematically expressed using
E = (m)c

Now imagine the situation of breaking the nucleus. To attain this, a

certain amount of energy is put into the system. The amount of energy
required to achieve this is called nuclear binding energy. Thus, we can
define nuclear binding energy as,

“The minimum energy required to separate nucleons into its

constituent protons and neutrons.” and is given by-

Eb = (m)c2

Thus, the difference in the mass is converted into Nuclear binding

energy.
The B.E. for tritium, the heaviest hydrogen atom:
B.E. = 2mn + 1mp –M = 2[1.00866] + 1[1.00782] - 3.01702
= 0.00812 amu = 0.00812×931.49 MeV
=7.5637 MeV
Similarly, the B.E. of the deuterium:
B.E. = 1mn + 1mp –M = 1.00866 + 1.00782 – 2.014102
= 0.002378 amu = 0.002378×931.49 MeV = 2.2151 MeV
Note that we have given the mass in amu [Atomic Mass Unit].
 Graph of Binding Energy per Nucleon

nuclear physics, one of the most important experimental quantities is the

inding energy per nucleon (BEN) which is defined by BEN=Eb\A

This quantity is the average energy required to remove an individual

nucleon from a nucleus. If the BEN is relatively large, the nucleus is
relatively stable.
A graph of binding energy per nucleon versus atomic number A is given
in Figure. This graph is considered by many physicists to be one of the
most important graphs in physics. First, typical BEN values range from
6–10 MeV, with an average value of about 8 MeV. In other words, it
takes several million electron volts to pry a nucleon from a typical
nucleus, as compared to just 13.6 eV to ionize an electron in the ground
state of hydrogen. This is why nuclear force is referred to as the
“strong” nuclear force.
As we will see, the BEN-versus-A graph implies that nuclei divided or
combined release an enormous amount of energy. This is the basis for a
wide range of phenomena, from the production of electricity at a
nuclear power plant to sunlight.
The graph rises at low A, peaks very near iron (Fe, A=56), and then tapers off
at high A. The peak value suggests that the iron nucleus is the most stable
nucleus in nature. The reason the graph rises and tapers off has to do with
competing forces in the nucleus. At low values of A, attractive nuclear forces
between nucleons dominate over repulsive electrostatic forces between
protons. But at high values of A, repulsive electrostatic forces between forces
begin to dominate, and these forces tend to break apart the nucleus rather
than hold it together.
 Total binding energy B and the binding
56
energy per nucleon26 Fe
B/Aandfor 238
92 U
can be shown to be: For 56
26 Fe

B = 492.3 MeV, B/A = 492.3/56 = 8.791

MeV
238
For 92 U
B = 1802 MeV, B/A = 1802/238 = 7.571
MeV

The binding energy of a nucleon is due to its nuclear interaction with

its immediate neighbors in a nucleus.
Since the nucleons on the surface of the nucleus have fewer
neighbors than those in the interior, their binding energy is
comparatively less. Light nuclei with their small radii have greater
surface-to-volume ratio than heavy nuclei. Hence, they contain
relatively more surface particles and consequently have smaller
binding energy per particle. This explains the observed increase in
binding energy from light nuclei up to Fe.
 L8
Nuclear Reaction
A nuclear reaction is a process that takes place when a nuclear particle
such as proton, neutron, deuteron, -particle, a nucleus etc. comes in
close contact (within 10-15 m) with another one and energy and
momentum exchange occur. The final products of the reaction are also
some nuclear particles. The process results in the transmutation of target
nucleus.

A general equation representing a nuclear reaction is of the form:

A
Z X  x  AZY  y  AX(x, y)AY
X  target nucleus
x  bombarding particle
Y  residual product
y  the ejected particle
 For example, cadmium-113 absorbs a neutron and emits a
gamma ray.
113
48 Cd 10 n  114
48 Cd  
Here the mass number of cadmium increased by one. The above phenomenon is an
example of neutron-capture reaction and can be expressed in short hand as
113
Cd(n,)114Cd
In a nuclear reaction, charge number, mass number, total energy, etc. are conserved.
Types of Nuclear reactions

Elastic scattering: When the incident and emitted particles are same that
reaction is called scattering.
Some particles are scattered in all directions and there is no energy loss
during reaction. Residual nucleus is same as that of the target nucleus that
is elastic scattering.
Example: X(x, x)X, i.e., X+xx+X C(n, n)12C
12

Inelastic scattering: Some particles are scattered with different energies.

Residual nucleus is same as that of the target nucleus with excited state.
Example: X(x, x)X*, i.e., X+xx+X* C(n, n)12C*
12

Radiative capture: Incident particle is absorbed by the target nucleus and fo

an excited compound nucleus, which disintegrate -rays.

Example: X(x, )Y*, i.e., X+xY* Y+

13 1
n 14
7 N 0 N 
+ 7

Disintegration process
Example: X(x, y)Y, i.e., X+x Y+y 14
N+ O+p
17
Photo-disintegration: Photon is absorbed and target nucleus becomes
excited and
subsequently disintegrates.
Example: X(,y)Y i.e., X+X*  Y+y


Nuclear fission
Example: X(x,y)Y i.e., X+xY+y, where y and Y have comparable masses.

Nuclear fusion
Example: X(x,y)Y i.e., X+xY+y, for lighter nucleus
Nuclear Fission

The process of disintegration or splitting of a heavy nucleus into two

nuclei of comparable masses is termed as nuclear fission. These
fragments, or fission products, are about equal to half the original mass.
Two or three neutrons are also emitted.

Sketch of induced nuclear fission, a

neutron (n) strikes a uranium
nucleus which splits into similar
products and releases more
neutrons to continue the process,
and energy in the form of gamma
and other radiation.
The sum of the masses of these
fragments is less than the original
mass. This 'missing' mass has been
converted into energy according to
Einstein's equation.
The energy produced from fission reactions is converted into
electricity in nuclear power plants. This is done by using the heat
produced from the nuclear reaction to convert water into steam.
The steam is used to rotate turbines in order to generate
electricity.
Examples
An important example of nuclear fission is the splitting of the
uranium-235 nucleus when it is bombarded with neutrons. Various
products can be formed from this nuclear reaction, as described in
the equations below.

•235U + 1n → Ba +
141 92
Kr + 3 1n

•235U + 1n → Xe +
144 90
Sr + 2 1n

•235U + 1n → La +
146 87
Br + 3 1n

•235U + 1n → Te +
137
Zr + 2 1n
97

•235U + 1n → Cs +
137 96
Rb + 3 1n
 165 MeV ~ kinetic energy of fission fragments
6 MeV ~ kinetic energy of the prompt neutrons
7 MeV ~ energy carried by prompt gamma rays
7 MeV ~ energy from fission products (beta
6 MeV decay)
9 MeV ~ energy from delayed gamma rays
200 MeV ~ anti-neutrinos from fission products

Energy released from each fission

Most of the energy is released as kinetic energy of the fission fragments.
These relatively heavy fragments do not travel very far through the
reactor fuel element before they dissipate most of their kinetic energy in
collisions with the atoms of the fuel element. The energy can be
extracted as heat and used to boil water; the resulting steam can be used
in a conventional way to drive a turbine to generate electricity.
Nuclear Chain Reactions
A chain reaction refers to a process in which neutrons released
in fission produce an additional fission in at least one further
nucleus. This nucleus in turn produces neutrons, and the
process repeats. The process may be controlled (nuclear
power) or uncontrolled (nuclear weapons).
If each neutron releases two more neutrons, then the number of
fissions doubles each generation. In that case, in 10 generations
there are 1,024 fissions and in 80 generations about 6 x 10 23 (a
mole) fissions
Controlled Nuclear Fission

To maintain a sustained controlled reaction, for every 2 or 3 neutrons

released, only one must be allowed to strike another uranium nucleus.
If this ratio is less than one then the reaction will die out; if it is greater
than one it will grow uncontrolled (an atomic explosion). Nuclear
reactions are controlled by a neutron-absorbing material, such as
cadmium.
What Is Nuclear Fusion?

Nuclear fusion is a reaction through which two or more light nuclei

collide to form a heavier nucleus. The nuclear fusion process occurs in
elements that have a low atomic number, such as hydrogen. Nuclear
Fusion is the opposite of nuclear fission reaction, in which heavy
elements diffuse and form lighter elements. Both nuclear fusion and
fission produce a massive amount of energy.
When deuterium and tritium fuse
together, their components are
recombined to form a helium atom and a
fast neutron. As the two heavy isotopes
are recombined into a helium atom and a
neutron, the leftover extra mass is
transformed into kinetic energy.

The participating nuclei should be

brought together for the nuclear fusion
reaction to occur. They should be brought
so close to each other that the nuclear
forces become active and glue to the
nuclei together.
Nuclear Fusion in the Universe

Every star in the universe, including the sun, is alive due to nuclear
fusion. It is through this process that they produce an enormous
amount of heat and energy. The pressure at the core of any star is
tremendously high, and that is where the nuclear fusion reaction
occurs.

For example, the temperature at the sun’s core is around 15 million

degrees Celsius. At this temperature, coupled with very high pressure,
two isotopes of Hydrogen, Deuterium and Tritium, fuse to form Helium
and release a massive amount of energy in the form of heat. Around
600 million tons of hydrogen are converted into Helium every second in
the sun. The reactions which take place in the sun provide an example
of nuclear fusion.
Fission Fusion
In nuclear fission reaction, a heavier In nuclear fusion reaction, two or
nucleus splits into two or more more lighter nuclei get combined to
lighter nuclei due to the produce a heavier nucleus.
bombardment of neutron.

In order to initiate a fission reaction, Very high temperature and pressure

a high velocity neutron is desired. are required to initiate fusion
reaction.
Nuclear fission is a self-sustained Nuclear fusion is not a chain
reaction because of its capability to reaction, so it is not self-sustained
undergo spontaneous chain reaction. (i.e. one fusion incident does not
influence another one).
Fission is possible for atoms with Fusion is possible for atoms with
higher atomic number. Theoretically, lower atomic numbers. Theoretically,
iron (Fe) is considered as boundary all elements in the periodic table
as it has highest binding energy per before Fe can possibly undergo
nucleon. So all elements in the nuclear fusion.
periodic table after Fe can possibly
undergo nuclear fission.
Mostly nuclear fission reaction Fusion reaction usually does not
leads to the generation of generate radioactive materials.
radioactive materials. This is the biggest benefit of
nuclear fusion.

Apart from nuclear reactors in Nuclear fusion occurs in the Sun

power plant, fission reaction is and other stars (in fact, fusion is
also utilized in several nuclear the source of energy and light of
weapons (notably atom bomb). the stars). Uncontrolled fusion is
also utilized in hydrogen bomb.