MODULE - 3

URBANIZATION
Definition
• Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to
urban areas, resulting in a decrease in the proportion of
people living in rural settings.
• This process involves the formation and expansion of
towns and cities for various reasons such as economic
opportunities, education, and lifestyle changes.
Current Trends and Predictions
• By 2050, it is projected that approximately 64% of the
developing world and 86% of the developed world will
be urbanized, equating to about 3 billion additional
urban residents.
Causes of Urbanization

• Economic Opportunities: Urban areas typically offer

more jobs and better wages compared to rural regions.
• Educational Access: Cities provide greater access to
educational institutions and resources.
• Healthcare Facilities: Urban environments have
better healthcare services.
• Lifestyle Preferences: The urban culture and
amenities attracts individuals from rural backgrounds
Effects of Urbanization

• Environmental Impact: Urbanization contributes to

habitat loss, deforestation, and increased pollution. The
concentration of populations can lead to higher
emissions from transportation and industry, creating
health risks for residents.
• Social Issues: Rapid urban growth can result in
inadequate housing, leading to slums and increased
poverty levels. Urban areas may also experience higher
crime rates due to overcrowding and lack of resources.
• Infrastructure Strain: Many cities struggle with
insufficient infrastructure, including transportation
systems, water supply, and sanitation facilities.
How Industrialization leads to
Urbanization
• Industrialization is the process that takes an agricultural economy and
transforms it into a manufacturing one. Mass production and assembly
lines replace manual and specialized laborers. The process has
historically led to urbanization by creating economic growth and job
opportunities that draw people to cities.
• Urbanization typically begins when a factory or multiple factories are
established within a region, which creates a high demand for factory
labor. Other businesses such as building manufacturers, retailers etc.
will also cause urbanization.
Problems of Urbanisation
1) Overcrowding
• Overcrowding is an urban issue caused by a situation
where the number of people in a given space exceeds
its capacity, leading to various health, safety, and
quality of life concerns.
• Many individuals migrate to urban areas in search of
better employment opportunities and living conditions.
Effects of Overcrowding

• Health Risks: Overcrowded living conditions can lead to

increased transmission of diseases, particularly respiratory
infections like tuberculosis due to reduced ventilation and
close contact among individuals.
• Psychological Stress: High population density can
contribute to feelings of anxiety, lack of privacy, and social
tension. Individuals may experience high stress levels due
to competing for limited resources such as water,
electricity, and space.
• Decline in Living Conditions: Overcrowded areas suffer
from poor hygiene practices, increased pollution, and
inadequate access to basic services, which can deteriorate
overall living conditions.
2) Unemployment
• Urbanization in India has significantly contributed to the
problem of unemployment.
• This may lead to a situation where the number of job
seekers exceeds the available positions, making it
challenging for individuals, especially youth from
educated backgrounds, to secure employment.
• As of the latest data, India's overall unemployment rate
is reported at 9.3%. However, urban unemployment has
shown some improvement, decreasing from 7.2% to
6.6% in FY24 due to economic growth and initiatives
aimed at boosting job creation
3) Slums and Squatter Settlements
• Urbanization in India has significantly contributed to the
rise of slums, as many migrants from rural areas seek
better living standards but find themselves unable to
afford the high cost of living in cities. This situation has
resulted in a substantial portion of the urban population
residing in slum conditions.
• Slums are characterized by substandard housing,
overcrowding, and a lack of essential services such as
electricity, sanitation, clean drinking water, and proper
waste management. These factors contribute to health
risks and social issues within these communities.
• Dharavi in Mumbai is recognized as one of Asia's largest
slums
4) Degradation of environmental quality
• Urbanization is a significant cause for environmental degradation,
particularly in rapidly developing countries like India. The
concentration of populations in urban areas leads to various
adverse effects on air and water quality, land use, and overall
environmental health.
Air Quality Degradation : This is mainly due to
• Increased Emissions: The demand for transportation results in a
higher number of vehicles. The combustion of these fuels releases
large amounts of pollutants into the atmosphere, contributing to
poor air quality and respiratory issues among urban populations.
• Urban Heat Islands: Urbanization often leads to the creation of
"heat islands," where built environments absorb and retain heat,
further degrading air quality and increasing energy consumption
for cooling.
Water Quality Issues
• Contamination from Waste: Urban areas generate
substantial amounts of domestic and industrial waste,
which are frequently discharged into rivers and streams
without adequate treatment. This practice leads to the
degradation of water quality, harming aquatic
ecosystems and posing health risks to residents.
• Runoff Pollution: The presence of impervious surfaces in
cities prevents rainwater from being absorbed into the
ground. This stormwater runoff carries pollutants into
waterways and thereby causing water quality issues.
5) Health Problems
• The health conditions of urban poor populations in India are
notably more adverse compared to their rural counterparts,
primarily due to a lack of access to basic amenities such as
clean drinking water, sanitation, and adequate healthcare.
• As urban populations grow, hospitals and clinics frequently
become overcrowded. This results in longer wait times for
patients seeking care, which can compromise the quality of
treatment received.
• Urban environments are often affected by various forms of
pollution—air, water, and noise—which pose significant
health risks to residents.
• High population density in urban areas can also lead to the
rapid spread of infectious diseases.
6) Transport problems
• Transport problems have increased and become more
complex as the
town grows in size. Today almost all cities of India are
suffering from
an acute form of transport problem. The insufficient road
infrastructure
leads to capacity overloading and causes problems such
as road accidents, traffic jams, etc. The inefficient and
over-congested public
transportation system has further increased the problem.
7) Sewerage Problems
• Rapid urbanization leads to the unplanned and haphazard growth
of
cities and most of these cities are plagued with inefficient sewage
facilities.
Not a single city in India has a fully developed sewage system. Most
cities do not have proper arrangements for treating the sewage.
• waste and it is drained directly into a nearby river or in the sea.
Such
practice is common in Delhi, Mumbai, and other metropolitan cities.
• According to GOI almost 78 per cent of the sewage generated in
India
remains untreated and is disposed of in rivers, lakes, or sea.
8) Water problem
• The rapid growth of the population in urban areas makes
water a very scarce resource and water supply becomes
strained and inadequate to meet the demands of the large
population.
• The water problems have worsened with the increase in
water pollution because of poor sewerage systems and a
lack of preventive measures for managing local water
pollution.
• Today we have reached a stage where no city in India gets
sufficient water to meet the daily needs of city dwellers.
• According to a report published by WWF (World Wide Fund
for Nature), 30 Indian cities would face a water risk by 2050
due to sharp increases in urban population.
9) Trash problem
• Mountains of garbage outside the city area have
become the hallmark of any metropolitan city in India.
These cities produce a lot of waste daily, moreover,
these cities do not have proper arrangements for
garbage disposal and the existing landfills are full to the
brim that they cannot accommodate more trash, this
subjects the people living in such areas to multiple
health risks like dysentery, malaria, plague, jaundice,
diarrhea, typhoid, etc.
• These landfills are hotbeds of disease and poisons
leaking into their surroundings causing air and water
pollution.
10) Higher Rates of Urban Crime
• With the increase in urbanization, the problem of
crime also increases.
• Many poor people who migrate to cities, for better
opportunities, often indulge in crime to meet their
daily needs. Not only the poor or slum dwellers;
youngsters from well-to-do families also resort to
crime in order to make a fast buck and to meet their
requirements of a lavish life.
• The increasing crime rate tends to upset the peace
and tranquility of the cities and make them insecure
for living, mainly for women. Metropolitan cities like
Delhi, Mumbai, and Bengaluru have accounted for
16.2, 9.5, and 8.1 per cent respectively of the total
11) Urban Sprawl
• Urban sprawl or real expansion of the cities, both in
population and geographical area, of rapidly growing
cities is the root cause of urban problems. In most cities
the economic base is incapable of dealing with the
problems created by their excessive size.
• Massive immigration from rural areas as well as from
small towns into big cities has taken place almost
consistently; thereby adding to the size of cities.
URBAN SPRAWL
• Definition and Characteristics
Urban sprawl is defined as "the spreading of urban
developments (such as houses and shopping centers) on undeveloped
land near a city". It can be identified through the following points:
• Low-density development: This includes large-lot residential areas
that consume significant amounts of land.
• Single-use zoning: Residential, commercial, and industrial areas are
separated, making it impractical for residents to walk or bike to work
or services.
• Automobile dependency: Residents typically rely on cars for
commuting due to the distance between homes and essential services
Causes of Urban Sprawl
1.Lower Land Rates: The availability of cheaper land and housing in
outer suburbs promote people to move away from city centers, where
costs are high. This trend is particularly attractive for families seeking
more space for their money.
2.Improved Infrastructure: Increased investment in infrastructure, such
as roads and utilities, makes previously less accessible areas more
desirable for living. As these infrastructures develop, they facilitate
further expansion into suburban regions.
3.Rise in Standard of Living: Higher incomes and improved living
standards enable families to afford longer commutes, leading them to
seek homes further from urban centers where they can enjoy larger
living spaces and amenities.
4.Lack of Urban Planning: Inadequate urban planning often results in
unregulated development. People are drawn to less congested areas,
which can lead to haphazard growth and the loss of green spaces due
to rapid construction.
Causes of Urban Sprawl
5. Weak Regulatory Frameworks: The absence of strong laws
governing urban development allows for uncontrolled sprawl.
6. Lower Property Taxes: Suburban areas typically have lower
property taxes compared to urban centers, making them
financially appealing. This tax advantage encourages families
to relocate to these regions.
7. Population Growth: An increasing population necessitates
more housing and services, pushing communities outward as
cities expand beyond their existing boundaries to
accommodate new residents.
8. Consumer Preferences: Many individuals, especially those with
higher incomes, prefer larger homes with outdoor spaces,
which are often not available in densely populated urban
settings. This desire drives them towards low-density
residential areas
Characteristics of Urban Sprawl
• Urban sprawl is characterized by several distinct features. Here are the key
characteristics:
1. Single-Use Development: Urban sprawl often involves the separation of land
uses, where residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial areas are
distinctly segregated. This results in large tracts of land dedicated to a single
purpose, making it impractical for residents to walk, bike, or use public transit
for daily activities like work, shopping, and recreation. Consequently, reliance
on automobiles becomes necessary.
2. Job Sprawl and Spatial Mismatch: Job sprawl refers to
the distribution of employment opportunities away from central
business districts (CBDs) into suburban areas. This pattern
often leads to spatial mismatch, where low-income urban
residents find it challenging to access jobs located in the
suburbs due to limited transportation options.
Contd…
3. Low-Density Development: Urban sprawl is typically associated with
low-density housing, characterized by single-family homes spread
across large lots. This type of development results in fewer homes per
acre compared to more densely populated urban areas. In the U.S.,
low-density might be defined as 2-4 houses per acre, while in the UK, 8-
12 houses per acre might still be considered low density.
4. Leapfrog Development: This phenomenon occurs when new
developments are built far from existing urban areas, often separated
by large green spaces or undeveloped land. As a result, overall
population density decreases even further, complicating infrastructure
planning and increasing reliance on cars for transportation
Contd…

5. Conversion of Agricultural Land: Urban sprawl frequently

encroaches on fertile agricultural land surrounding cities. This
conversion not only reduces food production capacity but also
contributes to habitat loss and environmental degradation as natural
landscapes are replaced with urban infrastructure.
6. Housing Subdivisions: Large housing subdivisions are a hallmark of
urban sprawl. These developments often feature a homogeneous
design with limited access points and may prioritize aesthetics over
functionality.
Contd…
7. Commercial Developments: In sprawling areas, commercial
establishments are typically segregated from residential
neighborhoods. Common forms include strip malls and shopping
centers that cater primarily to automobile traffic rather than pedestrian
access. These developments often contribute to the decline of local
businesses.
8. Lawn Culture: The prevalence of lawns in suburban developments
has become a cultural norm, particularly in North America. This
practice not only consumes significant land but also requires substantial
resources for maintenance.
Effects of Urban Sprawl
• Environmental Effects
1.Land and Habitat Loss: Urban sprawl leads to the conversion of agricultural land and
natural habitats into urban developments, resulting in habitat fragmentation and a
decline in biodiversity.
2.Water Quality Degradation: The increase in impervious surfaces, such as roads and
parking lots, enhances runoff, which carries pollutants like oil, heavy metals, and
chemicals into water bodies. This runoff contributes to water pollution and can lead to
health issues for humans and aquatic life.
3.Air Pollution: Increased reliance on automobiles due to sprawling development raises
vehicle emissions, contributing to air quality deterioration. Pollutants from vehicle
exhaust can lead to respiratory problems and cardiovascular diseases. Suburban areas
often experience higher per capita pollution levels compared to urban centers due to
longer commutes.
4.Urban Heat Islands: The replacement of vegetation with concrete and asphalt creates
urban heat islands, leading to higher local temperatures. This phenomenon can cause
health risks, particularly for vulnerable populations such as the elderly.
5.Increased Flooding Risks: Urban sprawl increases the likelihood of flooding due to
reduced natural absorption of rainfall by soil and vegetation. The alteration of land
surfaces disrupts the natural water cycle, leading to more severe runoff during heavy
rain events.
Contd….
• Health Effects
1.Chronic Health Conditions: The correlation between urban
sprawl and health issues such as obesity and hypertension is
well-documented. Reduced physical activity due to increased
car dependency contributes to these chronic conditions.
2.Mental Health Impacts: The stress associated with traffic
congestion, noise pollution from vehicles, and reduced social
interactions in sprawling environments can negatively affect
mental well-being.
3.Increased Mortality Risks: Higher rates of automobile
accidents in sprawling areas pose significant risks to
residents. Motor vehicle crashes are a leading cause of death
among younger populations.
Contd…
• Economic Effects
1.Higher Public Service Costs: Providing infrastructure and
services (such as water, sewers, and road maintenance) in
low-density areas is more expensive per household compared
to urban centers. This inefficiency can strain public budgets.
2.Transportation Expenses: Residents in sprawling areas
typically spend a larger portion of their income on
transportation due to longer commutes and reliance on cars.
This economic burden can limit disposable income for other
necessities.
3.Decreased Property Values: As urban sprawl spreads
outwards, it can lead to a decline in property values in central
urban areas due to reduced demand for housing close to city
centers.
Contd…
• Social Effects
1.Decline in Social Capital: Urban sprawl can diminish
social interactions by creating physical barriers between
neighborhoods and reducing communal spaces where
people gather. This isolation can weaken community
ties.
2.Erosion of Community Identity: The spread of
homogeneous suburban developments often leads to a
loss of distinct community character and identity, as
local businesses and public spaces are replaced by
chain stores and private properties.
URBAN HEAT ISLANDS
• Urban areas commonly experience the urban heat
island (UHI) effect, meaning they are significantly
warmer than surrounding rural areas. The temperature
difference is usually more noticeable at night and when
winds are weak, particularly during the summer and
winter.
• Definition: An urban heat island is defined as the
relative warmth of a city compared to surrounding rural
areas. This warmth results from heat trapping due to
land use, the design of the built environment, heat-
absorbing building materials, reduced ventilation and
greenery, and heat emissions from human activities
Effects of Urban Heat Island
• Specific effects:
• Health Impacts: High temperatures associated with UHIs
can cause discomfort, dehydration, heat exhaustion,
respiratory problems, and even increased mortality rates
due to heatstroke.
• Increased Energy Consumption: Higher urban
temperatures, particularly during summer nights, lead to
greater demand for air conditioning, driving up electricity
prices and straining power grids. Increased air conditioning
use can also worsen the UHI effect at night due to the
residual heat generated by these systems.
• Air Quality: UHIs worsen air quality by increasing the
production of pollutants like ozone.
Effects of Urban Heat Island
• Water Quality: UHIs can decrease water quality as
warmer waters flow into streams, stressing their
ecosystems.
• Ecosystems: Urban heat and the urban heat island
effect can impact urban wildlife and ecosystems.
• Changes in weather patterns: Monthly rainfall is
greater downwind of cities, partially due to the
UHI. Increases in heat within urban centers increase the
length of growing seasons and decrease the occurrence
of weak tornadoes.
• Economic Impacts: The heat island effect will cause
millions of dollars annually in energy consumption in the
cities.
Causes of UHI
Several factors contribute to the UHI effect
• Urban design: Dark surfaces absorb more solar
radiation, causing urban areas with
concentrations of roads and buildings to heat up
more than rural areas. Materials such as
concrete and asphalt have different thermal
properties than those of surrounding areas,
leading to higher temperatures.
• Loss of vegetation: Lack of evapotranspiration
due to decreased vegetation contributes to the
UHI effect.
Causes of UHI
• Geometry: Tall buildings in urban areas
create multiple surfaces for reflection and
absorption of sunlight, increasing the
efficiency with which urban areas are
heated; this is known as the "urban canyon
effect". Buildings also block wind, inhibiting
cooling and preventing the dissipation of
pollutants. Waste heat from automobiles,
air conditioning, and industry also
contribute to UHI.
Contd…
Impacts of UHI
• Impacts of UHIs on weather and climate:
• Local Meteorology: UHIs can change local wind patterns, humidity,
and the formation of clouds and fog. The extra heat from a UHI causes
greater upward motion in the atmosphere, which can lead to
increased shower and thunderstorm activity.
• Rainfall: Rainfall rates downwind of cities have increased between
48% and 116%. Monthly rainfall is about 28% greater 20 to 40 miles
(32 to 64 km) downwind of cities compared to upwind. Some cities
experience a total precipitation increase of 51%.
Impacts of UHI
• Growing Seasons: In regions with temperate climates, UHIs can prolong the
growing season, which can disrupt the breeding strategies of inhabiting
species.
• Air Quality: High UHI intensity correlates with increased concentrations of
air pollutants that gathered at night, which can affect the next day’s air
quality. The production of these pollutants combined with the higher
temperatures in UHIs can quicken the production of ozone.
• Water Quality: Hot pavement and rooftop surfaces transfer their excess
heat to stormwater, which then drains into storm sewers and raises water
temperatures as it is released into streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes. The
increase in thermal pollution has the potential to increase water
temperature by 20 to 30 °F (11 to 17 °C), which will cause the fish species
inhabiting the body of water to undergo thermal stress and shock due to
the rapid change in temperature of their habitat.
Other impacts of UHI
• Health: UHIs can lead to increased discomfort, respiratory
problems, dehydration, heat exhaustion, and even higher
mortality rates due to heatstroke. Exposure to extreme heat
can also have adverse effects on mental health, contributing
to increased aggression, domestic violence, and substance
abuse.
• Energy Consumption: Higher temperatures, especially
during summer nights, increase the demand for air
conditioning, leading to higher electricity prices and strain on
power grids. The increased use of air conditioning can also
worsen the UHI effect due to the residual heat generated by
these systems.
• Air Quality: UHIs worsen air quality by increasing the
production of pollutants such as ozone.
Other impacts of UHI
• Water Quality: UHIs can decrease water quality as warmer
waters flow into streams, stressing their ecosystems. Rapid
temperature changes in water bodies due to runoff from hot
surfaces can cause thermal stress and shock to aquatic
organisms.
• Ecosystems: Urban heat and the urban heat island effect can
impact urban wildlife and ecosystems.
• Economic Impacts: The increased energy consumption due to
UHIs can cost cities millions of dollars annually. For example, the
heat island effect was estimated to cost Los Angeles about $100
million per year in energy in the year 2000.
• Exacerbation of Climate Change: Increased energy use from
air conditioners contributes to carbon emissions, which worsens
the effects of UHIs.
Options for reducing heat island effects
• Increasing trees and vegetation: Planting trees and expanding
green cover provides shade and releases moisture into the
atmosphere, which helps to cool the environment. Green
infrastructure also improves air quality, promotes biodiversity, and
enhances overall livability.
• Creating green roofs: Green roofs provide both direct and
ambient cooling effects, improve air quality, and can help manage
stormwater runoff. Many communities offer tax credits for installing
green roofs.
• Installing cool roofs: Cool roofs feature bright, reflective coatings
that reflect more sunlight and absorb less heat.
• Using cool pavements: Replacing standard pavement with cool
pavement can lower surface temperatures. Porous bricks and
concrete can absorb, seep, purify, and store water, lowering
pavement surface temperature. Some municipalities have
experimented with painting streets white to reflect sunlight.
Options for reducing heat island effects
• Improving ventilation: corridors Improving ventilation corridors can
help to mitigate UHIs. A variety of building heights encourages better
airflow, which moves heat away more efficiently.
• Smart growth principles: Compact, mixed-use development limits
sprawling, heat-retaining surfaces.
• Integrating, inclusive planning: Integrating urban stakeholders to
ensure that vulnerable urban residents are protected. Early warnings
from meteorological agencies might be tied to enhanced health
infrastructure to ensure elderly or medically vulnerable people have
access to medical treatment or shelter, and there may be work
stoppages for outdoor construction workers when heatwaves occur.
• Building design: Passive cooling techniques can be incorporated into
new buildings to minimize air conditioning use. Shade can be planned
from the start.
• Sponge cities: Transforming hard surfaces into permeable surfaces
that can absorb, seep, purify, and store water and later release stored
water for use
Urban flooding
• Urban flooding is the inundation of land or property in a built environment,
especially in more densely populated areas, caused by rainfall exceeding the
capacity of drainage systems, such as storm sewers.
Factors which contribute to urban flooding are:
• Inadequate Drainage Systems: Many cities have outdated or undersized drainage
systems unable to handle increased runoff volume from impervious surfaces.
• Impervious Surfaces: Paved streets and roads increase the speed of flowing
water, and prevent rainfall from infiltrating the ground, leading to higher surface
runoff that exceeds local drainage capacity.
• Encroachment on Drainage Channels: New developments in low-lying areas
encroach on lakes, wetlands, and riverbeds due to increased land prices and
limited land availability.
• Climate Change: Urban flooding causes through extreme weather conditions and
heavier rainfall.
Types of Urban flood
• urban floods can basically be divided into four categories
• Local Floods
• Riverine Floods
• Coastal Floods
• Flash Floods
Local Flood: Local floods in urban settings are due to intense rainfall,
inadequate drainage and urbanization. These floods are typically
confined to small geographical areas and are not long in duration,
though they can last for weeks in regions with extended rainy seasons.
Contd…
Key factors that contribute to local floods are
• High Rainfall Intensity: Seasonal storms can cause very high rainfall intensity and
duration, overwhelming local drainage capacity.
• Impervious Surfaces: Built environments generate higher surface runoff due to
urbanization, which leads to decreased rates of infiltration and increased surface
runoff.
• Inadequate Drainage Systems: Many urban drainage facilities suffer from a lack of
cleaning and maintenance. Rubbish and debris clog drainage facilities, reducing their
capacity and causing increased surface runoff and backup effects.
• Ignoring Natural Drainage: Rapid development and infrastructure projects like road
construction often fail to account for natural drainage systems, especially in small
and medium-sized towns.
• Slum Conditions: Localized flooding occurs frequently in slum areas due to a lack of
drains, highly compacted ground, and pathways that turn into streams after heavy
rain
Types of Urban flood
Riverine Flood: Riverine floods occur when rivers overflow their banks due to excessive
water volume. This can result from heavy rainfall or snowmelt in upstream areas. The
amount of runoff generated is directly influenced by ground conditions such as soil,
vegetation cover, and land use.
Several factors contribute to riverine flooding are
• Exceeding Channel Capacity: Riverine flooding occurs when streams and rivers can't
contain the water flow within their natural or constructed channels.
• Natural Causes: Heavy rainfall, accelerated snowmelt, or severe winds over water can
cause rivers to overflow.
• Blockages: River courses can be blocked by soil erosion, improper waste disposal, or other
obstructions.
• Failure of Flood Control Measures: Poor operation or failure of drainage and flood control
works can also lead to riverine flooding.
• Urban Expansion: Urban growth into floodplains reduces the area for natural overflow.
• Prolonged Duration: River levels rise slowly, and the flooding period can last for weeks or
even months, especially in flat areas
Types of Urban flood
Coastal Flood: Coastal floods occur when normally dry, low-lying coastal land is
submerged by seawater. Coastal flooding can result from storm surges, rising sea
levels, and tsunamis.
Key factors that contribute to coastal floods are
• Storm Surges: Storms, such as hurricanes and cyclones, can cause storm surges,
which are significantly larger waves than normal.
• High Tides: Unusually high tides, like spring tides, can cause coastal flooding,
especially when combined with high winds and storm surges.
• Sea Level Rise: Climate change is generating an upward trend in sea level, increasing
the risk of coastal flooding. Coastal cities may be particularly affected by sea level
rise and higher rainfall intensity.
• Tsunamis: Though infrequent, tsunamis triggered by powerful offshore earthquakes
can cause coastal floods.
• Human Modifications: Human modifications to the coastal environment can worsen
coastal flooding.
Types of Urban flood

• Flash flood: Flash floods are characterized by a rapid and intense surge of water in
low-lying areas that can occur within minutes or hours of the causative event. They
are distinguished from regular floods by a timescale of fewer than six hours
between rainfall and the onset of flooding.
Several factors can cause flash floods are
• Heavy Rainfall: The most common cause is intense rainfall from thunderstorms,
hurricanes, or tropical storms. Heavier rain tends to cause more severe flash floods.
• Dam Failure: The collapse of a dam can release a large volume of water, causing a
flash flood downstream.
• Ice Jams and Snowmelt: A sudden release of water held back by an ice jam can
cause flash flooding downstream. Melting snowpack, especially when combined
with heavy rains, can also contribute flash flood.
• Other Causes: Landslides, cloud bursts, and glacial lake outbursts can also trigger
flash floods.
Impacts of Urban Flooding

Economic Impacts:
• Property devaluation: Wet basements can decrease property values
by 10% to 25%.
• Business disruption: Almost 40% of small businesses never reopen
after a flooding disaster. Supply chain issues can interrupt the
availability of goods and services, creating interruptions in the
availability of goods and services, as well as financial losses for
businesses.
Impacts of Urban Flooding

Public Health Crisis: Floodwaters often mix with sewage and industrial
waste, creating breeding grounds for waterborne diseases.
• Contamination: Floodwaters can mix with sewage and chemicals, posing
health risks.
• Disease outbreaks: Flooding can lead to the spread of waterborne
illnesses.
Infrastructure Damage: Floodwaters can cause extensive damage to
buildings, roads, and bridges. Houses, businesses, and public facilities may
be flooded or destroyed, resulting in significant financial losses.
• Transportation: Urban flooding impacts critical public services, including
public transportation systems and can worsen traffic congestion.
• Essential services: Flooding disrupts essential services, including
transportation, healthcare, and emergency services.
Impacts of Urban Flooding
Human Impact:
• Loss of life and injuries: People can get trapped in submerged areas
or swept away by strong currents, leading to fatalities and injuries. In
2020, floods caused an estimated 6,000 deaths globally.
• Displacement and homelessness: Urban flooding can force people to
evacuate their homes and seek temporary shelter. Displaced
individuals often face difficulties in finding adequate accommodation
and suffer from the loss of personal belongings.
• Increased risk of infection: Flooding increases the risk of infection,
adding to human suffering.
• Job losses: Flooding can cause people to lose their jobs
Causes of Urban flooding
• Climate Change: Changing weather patterns and the increased intensity of rainfall
events contribute to more frequent and severe urban floods. The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports indicate an increase in extreme rainfall
events in India, which drainage systems cannot handle.
• Inadequate Drainage Infrastructure: Many cities rely on outdated drainage systems
that cannot manage current precipitation patterns. This results in overflow during
heavy rainfall.
• Loss of Water Bodies and Green Spaces: Major cities have lost a significant
percentage of their water bodies, reducing natural water storage capacity and
disrupting the natural water cycle. Deforestation and the destruction of green spaces
also reduce the land's ability to absorb water.
• Unplanned Urbanization: Unplanned urban growth destroys natural drainage
systems and leads to encroachment on floodplains and wetlands. It also increases
impermeable surfaces due to widespread concrete construction.
• Solid Waste Mismanagement: Improper solid waste disposal clogs drains and
reduces water flow capacity, leading to waterlogging.
Causes of Urban flooding
• High Population Density: Rapid urbanization and population growth lead
to more paved surfaces, reducing natural water absorption and
increasing surface runoff.
• Encroachments on Drainage Channels: New developments in low-lying
areas encroach on lakes, wetlands, and riverbeds.
• Groundwater Depletion and Land Subsidence: Excessive extraction of
groundwater causes land subsidence in urban areas, creating low-lying
areas vulnerable to waterlogging.
• Lack of Public Awareness and Preparedness: Lack of awareness and
management measures by government agencies also contribute to the
problem.
• Siltation of Rivers and Water Bodies: Siltation reduces the water-holding
capacity of lakes and rivers and impairs natural drainage systems.
Mitigation measures for urban flooding

• Mitigation measures for urban flooding involve a

combination of structural and non-structural
strategies. Effective mitigation requires addressing
inadequate drainage systems, rapid urbanization, and
poor land use and environmental management.
• Cities can become more resilient to urban flooding
through modern flood protection, enhanced drainage
and sewage systems, and urban planning adjustments.
Contd….
Strategies for Flood Mitigation and Adaptation:
• Flood Risk Management: Implementing measures such as floodplain
zoning and flood forecasting can protect vulnerable areas and reduce the
impacts of flooding.
• Modernized Flood Protection Systems: Innovative flood protection
systems offer better preparation compared to traditional sandbags.
• Urban Planning: Adapting urban planning and zoning to consider flood
risk helps guide development away from flood-prone areas and ensures
new construction incorporates flood-resilient design principles1.
• Green Infrastructure: Integrating green spaces like rain gardens and
bioswales enhances water infiltration and reduces flood risk. Green
infrastructure elements such as permeable pavements, rain gardens, and
green roofs, enhance cities' capacity to absorb and manage excess rainfall.
Urban planning
• Urban planning is a technical and political process
focused on the development and design of land use and
the built environment.
• It guides orderly development in urban, suburban, and
rural areas, addressing how people will live, work, and
play.
• It is also known as town planning, city planning, regional
planning, or rural planning in specific contexts
Contd…
Key aspects of urban planning:
• Focus: Urban planning focuses on the physical form, economic
functions, and social impacts of the urban environment. It addresses
the development of open land and development of existing city parts.
• Scope: It involves planning for settlements and communities, efficient
transportation, distribution of resources, economic growth, and
environmental conservation.
• Objectives: Urban planning aims to improve the quality of life for
residents, ensuring efficient land use, infrastructure, public services,
and environmental protection.
Contd…
• Sustainability: Modern urban planning emphasizes sustainability to
meet present needs without compromising future generations.
• Multidisciplinary: Urban planning is a multidisciplinary field
integrating civil engineering, architecture, human geography, politics,
social science, and design sciences.
• Process: It includes research and analysis, strategic thinking, urban
design, public consultation, policy recommendations,
implementation, and management. Planners gather public feedback
and synthesize it into actionable legal documents, developing and
monitoring implementation tools.
• Goal: The goal of city planning is to design and manage the physical,
social, and economic development of urban areas to create
sustainable, functional, and aesthetically pleasing communities.
Zoning
• Zoning is a method used in urban planning where a
municipality divides land into specific "zones," each
with its own set of regulations for new developments.
• These regulations can differ from zone to zone.
• Zoning is a land-use planning tool employed by local
governments in most developed countries to regulate
and control land and property markets.
Contd…
Key Aspects of Zoning:
• Regulations: Zoning regulations determine whether planning
permission for a given development may be granted. They may
specify permitted land uses, lot sizes and dimensions, and the form
and scale of buildings.
• Purpose: Zoning aims to guide urban growth and development by
preventing the misuse of lands and buildings and limiting population
densities in different zones. It sets apart areas for specific purposes
and prevents encroachment of one zone upon another.
• Classifications: Common zoning classifications include residential,
commercial, industrial, agricultural, and public-use zones. These
categories may be further divided based on density and specific land
use.
Contd…
• Benefits: Thoughtful zoning ensures the health and safety of residents
and facilitates the development of necessary infrastructure to support
residents, businesses, and industrial facilities.
• Importance: Zoning is critical to town planning because it allows
authorities to regulate land use, ensure complementary uses, and
stimulate or slow down development in specific areas. It can also
exclude commercial and industrial activities from residential areas.
Types of Zoning
• Land use zoning is a system used by governments to classify land
parcels for specific locations.
• It is a branch of urban planning that seeks to order and regulate land
use efficiently.
• There are no universal codes for land use; local governments oversee
zoning designations and regulations. Cities usually have more than
one type of land use zone.
Contd…
• Functional Zoning: Defines zones according to their function, such as
commercial, residential, or industrial. Each zone type has specific
rules concerning the types of activities that can be built.
• Form-Based Zoning: Defines zones according to their physical
characteristics, often from an urban identity perspective, such as a
downtown area.
• Intensity Zoning: Defines land use zones by the permitted intensity
level, such as the number of residential units per surface unit or
allowed commercial surface. Density can also be set to minimum
criteria to avoid wasteful usage of real estate.
Contd…
• Incentive Zoning: Often part of revitalization or development plans, it
allows developers to build projects in specific areas by providing
incentives such as tax reduction or basic infrastructure. Developers
can be granted lower restrictions, such as density limits, if amenities
like park areas and infrastructure are also developed.
• Single-Use Zoning: Only one type of use is permitted in each zone.
Examples include residential, mixed-use residential-commercial,
commercial, industrial etc.
• Mixed-Use Zoning: Established to support the concept of walkable
communities, mixing cafés, restaurants, workplaces, and residential
development in the same area.
Contd…
• Conditional Zoning: Allows cities to respond to the special
characteristics of a given land use plan, increasing flexibility. It allows for
the approval of uses like schools and community centers that might not
be permitted under the current zoning.
• Pattern Zoning: A municipality offers licensed, pre-approved building
plans, usually with a streamlined approval process. It is used to lower
obstacles to housing development, produce more affordable housing,
lighten the workload of the staff, and produce high-quality home
designs.
• Agricultural Zoning: Typically found in communities that want to
maintain the farm industry. It usually limits the land development for
non-farm usage. It helps protect farming communities from being
overrun by residential developments and is necessary for incentive,
subsidy, and tax abatement programs.
Contd…
• Rural Zoning: Often used for farms or ranches. In certain parts of the
country, this class includes residences zoned to allow horses or cattle.
• Combination Zoning: Any number of zoning designations have mixed-
use and can be combined to form some sort of combination zone.
• Historic Zoning: Includes homes and buildings over 50 years old.
There are zoning regulations that prevent changing structures from
their original conditions, but there are allowances for repair and
restoration in keeping with the historic plan.
• Residential Zoning: Zones can include single-family residences,
suburban homesteads, and other designations, including homes,
apartments, duplexes.
Sustainable Development and Pillars of
Sustainable development
• “Sustainable development is development that strives
to meet the needs of developing countries seeking to
achieve a more sustainable world. Sustainable
development addresses the needs of the present
moment without compromising current and future
generations to meet their own sustainable lifestyles.”
• The three pillars of sustainability—environmental, social, and
economic—are deeply interconnected, with each influencing and
depending on the others. These pillars must interact harmoniously to
support sustainability. Like a tripod, if one pillar is removed, the
structure topples.
Contd…
How pillars of sustainability interact ?
• Interdependence: Each pillar relies on the others. The social pillar is
connected to the ecological because the environment significantly
impacts the quality of life. The economic pillar depends on the
ecological, as economies rely heavily on natural resources and
ecosystem services.
• Holistic Approach: The three pillars are not singular entities but form
a holistic whole. Sustainable development requires the social,
economic, and ecological elements to actively complement and
reinforce each other.
• Balance: Striking the right balance between people, planet, and profit
promotes social equity, environmental protection, and economic
prosperity simultaneously.
How pillars of sustainability interact ?
• Benefits: Sustainable attitudes in the financial area can reduce
expenses related to materials, energy and water.
• Integration: Creating a holistic framework requires treating the three
pillars not as separate entities but as an integrated system where the
health of each component influences the overall balance. The goal is
to devise strategies that drive social progress, economic growth, and
environmental protection simultaneously.