Modern batteries and their

management
by
by
Nihal
Nihal Kularatna
Kularatna
 Battery World in General
• 2008 world market around $36 billion
• 2013 estimate is $51 billion
• [Advanced Rechargeable Battery Market: Emerging Technologies and
Trends Worldwide, March 1, 2009, 245 Pages - Pub ID: SB1933124,
market research.com]
• Two categories
– primary
– Secondary
• US battery demand (2012)
– Secondary batteries to reach US$ 11 billion
– Annual growth rate of 2.5%
– Primary batteries to reach US$ 5,8 billion
– Annual growth rate of 3%
• Secondary/rechargeable market is huge due to portable products
• Chemistries
– Lead acid
– NiCd
– NiMH
– Li-Ion
– Li-polymer/Li-metal/ Li Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4)
– Zn-Air
– Rechargeable Alkaline
• Technology - Batteries and Management ICs
 Battery Chemistry Characteristics
Table 9.1 : Battery Chemistry Characteristics
Units/ Sealed
Parameter conditions Lead NiCd NiMH Li-Ion Li- Li i
Acid Polymer Phos
Cell Voltage Volts 2.0 1.2 1.2 3.6 1-8 t0 3.0 3.2
Relative cost NiCd= 1 0.6 1 1.6 2
Internal Low Very Moderate High
resistance low
Self %/month 2%-4% 15%- 18%- 6%-
Discharge 30% 20% 10%
Cycle Life cycles to 500- 500- 500- 1000- 1500
reach 80% 2000 1000 800 1200
of rated
capacity
Overcharge Very
tolerance High Med Low Low
Energy by
volume watt 70-110 100- 135-180 280- Around 2
hour/liter 120 320 410
Energy by
weight watt hour/kg 30- 45 45-50 55-65 90-110 Around 1
210
Cell voltages and energy densities vary with discharge and
temperature
 Battery energy density versus other fuels etc

Fuel or Battery Energy Density (Wh/kg)

Diesel fuel 10,000

Methanol 5000

High explosive 1000

Primary battery (maximum estimated 500

around 1995)
Rechargeable battery (maximum estimated 200
around 1995)
LiSO2 battery 175

Alkaline battery 80

Ni-Cd battery 40

Li-ion battery 120

Note: A 1000 Wh/kg energy density is about the safely transportable case of explosives!
 C rate

• Charge or discharge rate in amperes or milliamperes which is numerically

equal to its Ah or mAh capacity

• This is quite practically useful, since this allows you to look at the
“chemistry” than the actaul capacity of the battery

• Example is – charging a small scooter battery of 8Ah at 8Amps will behave

the same way, as we charge a car battery of 60Ah at 60A, provided the
quality/ manufacturing process of the batteries are the same

• Designing electronics around batteries usually use this as a very practical

design parameter
Battery capacity decreases as the discharge rate increases

1.2
Cell Voltage (V)

1.0

0.8

0.6
10 C
Rate
0.4
5C C 0.1 C
Rate Rate Rate
0.2

0 20 40 60 80 100

Discharge Capacity

Figure 9-1
 Battery capacity definitions
Term Definition Remarks Note
Standard Capacity of new, Assumes a cell/battery is EODV itself could be
Capacity stabilized production fully formed, charged at subjected to variations
cell or a battery, can standard temp at the depending on the discharge
store or discharge specification rate and rate
under a defined set discharged at the same
of application temperature and specified
conditions discharge rate to a standard
end of discharge voltage
(EODV)
Actual When application Fully discharged to Examples are- subjecting a
capacity conditions vary from standard EODV cell or battery to a cold
the standard discharge or a high-rate
conditions, actual discharge
capacity includes all
non standard
conditions that alter
the amount of
capacity.
Available That portion of A designer may use a If the standard EODV for a
capacity actual capacity different EODV than the cell is 1.6V, if one decides to
which can be data sheet value for specific discharge only up to 1.8V,
delivered by the fully reasons available capacity will be
charged new cell to less than the Actual capacity
some non standard
EODV
Rated Minimum expected Basis for the C rate and
capacity capacity when a new depends on the standard
but fully formed, cell conditions used by the
is measured under manufacturer. t

Retained
capacity
standard conditions.
If a battery is stored
for a period of time,
Takes into account the self
discharge.
Capacity =
idt
0
the capacity
remained at the end
of that period
 Battery operation in a symmetric electrochemical cell
Consumed by the
current flow through
external circuit

Replenished by the
diffusion within
electrolyte

Source: Rao, R et el, battery modeling for

This is the reason for need for a battery recovery energy aware system design, Computer, Dec
after deep discharges! 2003, pp 77-87/ Matsushita
 Capacity definitions- A summary
• Standard capacity: Amount of charge that can be extracted under standard
load, and temperature conditions.

• Actual capacity: Amount of charge a battery delivers under given load and
temperature conditions

• Theoretical capacity: Maximum amount of charge that can be extracted

based on the amount of material it contains

• Full design capacity: Remaining capacity of a newly manufactured battery

• Full charge capacity: Remaining capacity of a battery at the beginning of a

discharge cycle
 Capacity fading
• Capacity fading occurs with each charge-discharge cycle of a
battery
– It occurs due to several effects such as
• Unwanted side reactions including electrolyte decomposition
• Active material dissolution
• Passive film formation
• These irreversible reactions increase the cell’s internal
resistance

• Ultimate result is a failure of a battery

It is a chemists’ or chemical engineers’ job to design
batteries to minimize these effects!

System designers and users can only attempt to control the depth of discharge
before recharging!
 Battery terminology
•Energy Density
•energy divided by its weight or volume
•When weight is used it is called the gravimetric energy density (Wh/kg)
•Volumetric energy density when the volume is used. (Wh/liter)
•Cycle Life
•Cycle life is a measure of a battery’s ability to withstand repetitive deep discharging and
recharging using the manufacturer’s cyclic charging recommendations and still provide
minimum required capacity for the application.
•Cyclic discharge testing can be done at any of various rates and depths of discharge to
simulate conditions in the application.
•Cycle life has an inverse logarithmic relationship to depth of discharge.
•Cyclic Energy Density
•Energy density over the service life of the battery.
•A composite characteristic
•Defined as the product of energy density and cycle life at that energy density
•Has the dimensional units,
•Watt-hour-cycles/kilogram (gravimetric)
•Or
• Watt-hour-cycles/liter (volumetric).
 Battery terminology (contd)
• Self Discharge Rate
– A measure of how long a battery can be stored [and still provide minimum
required capacity and be recharged to rated capacity].
– It is commonly measured by placing batteries on shelf stand at room (or
elevated) temperature and monitoring open circuit voltage over time.
– Samples are discharged at periodic intervals to determine remaining capacity
and recharged to determine rechargeability

• Charge Acceptance
– Charge acceptance is the willingness of a battery or cell to accept charge.
– This is affected by cell temperature, charge rate, and the state of charge

• Depth of Discharge
– The capacity removed from a battery divided by its actual capacity
– expressed as a percentage

• Midpoint Voltage
– Battery voltage when 50 percent of the actual capacity has been delivered
 Mid point voltage

Open Circuit Voltage Midpoint Voltage

Discharged Voltage (V)

Voltage
Plateau

Knee of
Discharge curve

50% 100%
Discharged Capacity

Figure 9-2
 Lead Acid Batteries
• Two different forms
– Flooded lead acid batteries
– Sealed lead acid batteries
• Flooded lead acid batteries
– Common batteries we use in automotives
– Based on the original design by Faure in 1881
• Sealed Lead Acid batteries
– First appeared in commercial use by early 1970s
– Basic chemistry is the same as the flooded version
– Key difference is the recombination process around the full charge [ In flooded
versions excess energy from overcharging goes into the electrolysis of water
(using the excess of the electrolyte) - gasses are released]
– In sealed versions recombination occurs and eliminate the electrolyte loss
• Two types of SLA
– Gelled electrolyte version
– Retained system (Absorbed Glass Mat –AGM type) – sometimes called the “
starved design”
– Both types are called valve regulated lead acid (VRLA) batteries
Capacity as a function of cell temperature-SLAs

100

Actual Capacity
( % of Rated )

230C

-40 -20 0 20 40 60
Cell Temperature (OC)

Figure 9-3
 Typical Cell Capacity During its Life

100

Stabilized Capacity
80
Actual Cell Capacity

Stabilization Period
( % of Rated )

End of Useful Life

0
Life in Cycles or Years

Figure 9-4
 Typical Pulsed Discharge Curve-SLAs

Terminal Voltage Delivered

Pulsed
Constant Current Discharge Discharge
at Pulse Application Rate

Discharge Capacity

Figure 9-5
 Charge acceptance-SLAs
100

Charge Acceptance (%)

Generalized Curve

0
0% 50% 100
State of Charge %
(a)
Charge Acceptance (%)

100
25O 50O
C C
0OC

0
0% 50% 100
State of Charge %

100
(b) Figure 9-6
Charge Acceptance (%)

C Rate 0.1C Rate

0.1C

0
0% 50% 100
State of Charge %
(c)
 Nickel based chemistries

• Reasonably mature chemistry

• NiCd families
– High energy density/discharge rates
– Fast recharge capability
– Long operating/storage life
– Limited overcharging is ok

However, the Cadmium content makes it environmentally

disastrous!
Definition of Rates for Charging NiCd Cell
 Discharge curves for NiCd cells at 230C

1.5
MPV 1 C MPV 0.2 C
1.3
Discharged Voltage (V)

1.1

0.9
MPV 20 C MPV 5 C
0.7 MPV 10 C

0.5
20 C 10 C 5C C 0.2 C
0.3

0.1
MPV = Mid Point Voltage

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Discharged Capacity (% of Rating)

Figure 9-7A
 Charge acceptance for NiCd cells
•When a NiCd is charged, not all the energy
input converts active material to usable form
(chargeable)
•Charge energy also goes into converting
active material into unusable form

OF DISCHARGE
NORMAL END
100%

DISCHARGE CAPACITY
RELATIONSHIP

•generating gas
•Parasitic side reactions 1 2 3 4

ACTUAL
•In Zone 1, a significant portion of charge input
converts active material mass into unusable CHARGE INPUT
form (charged material is not readily available
during medium or high discharge rates,
100%
particularly in first few cycles)

INCREMENTAL CHARGE EFFICIENCY

•In Zone 2 , charging efficiency is nearly 100% 1 2 3 4

 OUTPUT
 INPUT
(small amounts of gas formation/parasitic side
reactions only make it less than 100%)
•Zone 3 is transition region;, as full charge is
reached, current shifts from charging positive 0%
CHARGE INPUT
active material to generating gas
FIGURE 9-8
•Zone 4 means all energy is converted to
forming gas… build pressure inside battery
 Memory effect [Voltage depression effect of NiCd]

•When some NiCds are 1.50

subjected to many partial 1.45

discharges and then,
1.40
overcharged cell voltage
decreases below 1.05V/cell 1.35

before 80% of the capacity is

NORMAL DISCHARGE VOLTAGE

1.30
discharged.

VOLTS
1.25
NORMAL DISCHARGE
•This is called the voltage 1.20
depression effect
[erroneously called Memory 1.15

Effect] 1.10 VOLTAGE DEPRESSION DISCHARGE

•This 150mV drop per cell is 1.05

very common when the 1.00

battery operates under high 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

temperatures % OF DISCHARGED CAPACITY

Can be electrically reversed by complete discharge and FIGURE 9-7(b)

charge [Called conditioning]

Figure 9-7B
Nickel Metal Hydride families
 NiMH families

• This is a newer Ni based chemistry with significantly higher energy density

• Almost twice the energy density of NiCd
• Does not have the notorious memory effect
• Positive electrode is Nickel, but the negative one is newer and
environmentally friendlier hydrogen absorbing alloy
• Terminal voltage is only slightly higher than NiCds

Negative aspects:
• Less tolerant to fast recharging/overcharging
• Much lower cycle life
• Less temperature range
Discharge characteristics comparison between NiCd and NiMH

1.5

1.4
Cell Voltage (V)

1.3
NiMH
1.2
NiCd

1.1

1.0

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Discharge Capacity (mAh)

Figure 9-9
Charge comparison and 100% charge achievement of NiCd
and NiMH

1.6
NiCd

1.5
NiMH
Cell Voltage (V)

1.4

1.3

1.2

1.1

0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150

Charge Input (%)

Figure 9-10
 Charge Termination

Most popular termination method- NiCd

Negative delta voltage technique (V)

• At high charge rates, where 100% - 125%
• Reaches +V occurs. Then after 120% -
• 125% -V occurs.
NiMH

This method is not suitable as

• Voltage swing is much less prominent
– [Charge rates below 0.5C does not produce readily detectable - V even
in NiCds.]
– This method, if used, should be combined with other methods.
• Less risky is to use (Zero V) detection.
– Preferred method
Three step charging method for Nickel based batteries

• Fast charge at 1C - terminated by -V or other

detection

• Topping charge at C/10 and cut off by ½ to 01 hour

timer

• Finally maintenance at rate C/20 or C/50

• Good practice to have thermal cut off beyond 600C

 Li-Based Chemistries

• Li-ion

• Li-Polymer

• Li-Metal

• Li Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4)

•These chemistries reached the market gradually from late 1990s

•Energy densities nearly twice as much as Ni Based chemistries
•Noticeable difference is the high internal resistance of the Li based
chemistries
•Safety is very serious concern in Li-ion battery packs (due to high energy
density which can create explosive effects)
Panasonic has developed a new cathode material called Nickel oxide based New Platform (NNP)
(LiNiCoAlO2) with an energy density of 620Wh/l
 Comparison of NiCd and Li-ion cells

120

100
NiCd
Capacity Ratio (%)

80

60

40 Lithium Ion

20

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Discharge Rate, Amps

The main reason for the difference in Figure 9-11

capacity ratio is due to the high internal
resistance of Li-ion compared to NiCd
 Construction of Li-ion batteries

• Anode
– Made up of a material capable of acting as a Li-ion reservoir
– Usually in the form of Carbon such as
• Coke
• Graphite
• Pyrolytic carbon
• Cathode
– Made up of a material that also could act as a lithium ion reservoir
– Preferred cathode materials were
• LiCoO2
• LiNiO2
• LiMnO4
• Due to this process of reversible lithium ion reservoirs was also called the Rocking-
chair cell

• Charge / discharge cut off voltages vary depending on the manufacturers

 Different electrodes used in Li-ion systems
4.2

21O C

3.9

Graphite

3.6
Voltage (V)

3.3

Coke

3.0

2.7

2.4

0 1 2 3 4 5

energy (Wh)

Figure 9-12
 Typical charge profile for Li-ion cells/ Charging schemes
•Initially a small trickle charge (0.1C) may 4.2 1.4
be useful to restore the charge of deeply Voltage

discharged cells (below about 3.0V) 1.2

3.9
•After cell voltages reach the minimum
Capacity 1.0
thresholds, a constant current charging 3.6
CV Recharge to 4.1 V
(current limited charging) is done (0.2 C to Current Limited to 1.2A 0.8

Current (A) / Capacity (Ah)

Voltage (V)
1C) 3.3
0.6
•Once you reach the voltage around 4.2V
3.0
(or any other manufacturer recommended Current 0.4
value) per cell, precise (±1%) regulation of
the charger voltage is required 2.7
21OC 0.2

•Charge is typically terminated by

2.4 0
•A timer 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

•Or, Time (h)

•At a minimum charge current (0.02C

to 0.07C)
•The above is one possible scheme. Advanced charging schemes may have temperature cutoff
to avoid ranges beyond 0-450C, together with other manufacturer recommendations.
•There are many linear or switch mode regulator based charger systems developed around
various ICs. [Dearbon, S. Chargin Li-ion batteries for maximum run times, PET Magazine, April 2005, pp 40-
49]
 LiFEPO4 batteries

• Introduced about a decade ago

• Recently entered into mass production
• Suitable for applications requiring high currents
– Electric vehicles
– Power tools
– Toys
– DC UPS
• Low internal resistance
• High life cycle capability around 1500-2000
• Energy density- 200 Wh/l [ 100 Wh/kg]
• Resistant to thermal run away
• Continuous discharge current around 5 to 30C
• Pulse current capability of 100A and higher
 Representative charging
recommendations for different batteries
Fast Charge termination methods for NiCd and NiMH batteries
Typical End of Discharge
Voltages
 Rechargeable Alkaline

• Alkaline technology has been used in primary batteries for

nearly two decades
• With the development of the reusable alkaline manganese
technology, secondary alkaline cells entered the market
• However these can be recharged only limited amount of
cycles [75-500 only]
• These are not categorized as a secondary cell, but as a
‘Reusable”
• First use it is like a primary alkaline, but every time you
recharge capacity drops!
• Cumulative effect of charge-discharge is giving cost
advantage over several usage cycles
Capacity of “AA” Cells at Various Depths of Discharge (DOD)
(Values in mAh) [Source : Nossaman and Parvereshi 1996]
 Performance of reusable alkaline
1.8

1.7

1.6

1.5

1.4
VOLTS

1.3

1.2 PRIMARY
NiCd (TYP) ALKALINE
1.1

1.0

1.4
RENEWAL RENEWAL
0.9 CYCLE # 50 CYCLE # 25
RENEWAL
INITIAL USE
0.8
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

HOURS

Figure 9-14
FIGURE 9-14
 Zn-Air batteries
• Primary Zn-air batteries have been in existence for over 50 years
• Hearing aids, harbour buoys are typical examples
• High energy and light weight of these promoted research on Zn-air
rechargeable chemistries
• AER Energy Resources was a company involved in this early work
with initial focus on EVs
• Rechargeable Zn-air technology is an air breathing technology
• Oxygen in ambient air is used to convert zinc into zinc oxide in a
reversible process.
• Cells use air breathing carbon cathode to introduce oxygen from air
into potassium-hydroxide electrolyte
• Cathode is multi-layered with a hydrophilic layer and anode is
comprised of metallic zinc
• Cell voltage is around 1.0V nominal
• An air manager is required
Energy density comparison of Zn-air vs other chemistries

250
220
200

Wh / kg
150
125
100
70
55
50

0
N iC d N iM H L i-Io n Z n -A ir

(a)

300
275
270
250
210
200
Wh / kg

150 145

100

50

0
N iC d N iM H L i-Io n Z n -A ir

(b )

Figure 9-15
Charge-discharge characteristics of Zn -air
2 .5 3 .0

V o ltag e 2 .5
2 .0

2 .0
C u rren t

Current (A)
1 .5

Voltage
1 .5
1 .0
1 .0

0 .5
0 .5

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
T im e (H o u rs)

Charging (a)

1 .3

1 .2

1 .1
Voltage

1 .0

0 .9

0 .8
4A 2A 1A 0 .5 A

0 .7
0 5 10 15 20
T Iim e (H o u rs)
25 30 35 40
Figure 9-16
Discharging (b )
Battery Management
 Battery management

• Three decades ago, battery management meant a reliable, fast, and

safe charging methodology to be selected for a battery bank,
together with the monitoring facilities for detecting the discharged
condition of the battery pack.

• With modern battery technologies emerging, the demands from the

cost sensitive portable product market, as well as the medium
power range products such as UPS and telecom power units, etc.,
attributes of a modern battery management system include:

– Battery charging methods and charge control

– End of discharge determination
– Gas gauging
– Monitoring battery health issues
– Communication with the host system/or power management
sub-systems.
 Charging systems

• Four major rechargeable chemistries can accept either a standard charge (16-24 hr
period) or a fast charge (2-4 hr)
• Slower charging is ok for simpler, price sensitive applications

Fast charging schemes

•The objective of fast charging a battery is to cram as much energy---to bring
the battery back to fully charged state in the shortest possible time
•It must be done without damaging the battery or permanently affecting its long
term performance.
•current is proportional to energy divided by time
•Charging current should be as high as the battery systems will reasonably
allow
•For the constant-current cells (NiCd and NiMH), a 1C charge rate will typically
return more than 90 percent of the battery’s useable discharge capacity within
the first hour of charging
•The constant-potential cells (Lead-Acid and Lithium-Ion) are a bit slower to
reach the 90 percent mark, but can be completely recharged within five hours.
 Care required during fast charging

• Fast-charging has compelling benefits

• But places certain demands upon the battery system
• A properly performed fast-charge, coordinated to the specifications of a battery [rated for
such charging], will deliver a long cycle life.
• The high charging rates however, cause rapid electrochemical reactions
• In overcharge, these reactions cause a sharp increase in internal cell pressure and
temperature.
• Uncontrolled high-rate overcharge cause irreversible battery damage.

As the battery approaches full charge, the charging current must

be reduced to a lower “top-off” level, or curtailed entirely.
 Fast Charge Termination Methods
• Two practical approaches
– Temperature based termination
– Voltage based termination C ell V o ltag e
1 .6
•Temperature based termination
1 .4
•Maximum temperature cutoff C ell V o ltag e
[easiest to implement] 1 .2

•Temperature difference based 1 .0

cutoff - (DT method) 0 .8

T em p eratu re
•Temperature slope based 0 .6
cutoff- (dT/dt method)
DT method becomes unreliable when the 0 .4

ambient temp changes too quickly 0 .2

P ressu re
Suitable for lower charging rates up to C/5, 0
if ambient temp does not change often 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

C h arg e C ap acity (% )
An excellent back up termination method
(dT/dt) method is more sophisticated, and
uses the battery temperature curve NiCd Charging(a)behaviour

Less dependant over ambient temperature

Ok up to 1C rates
 Voltage based termination methods

•Four commonly available voltage termination

methods 0.0020
1.8

• maximum voltage (Vmax) 1.7

- V
0.0015

•Negative delta voltgae (-ΔV) 1.6

Voltage Curve
0.0010
Inflection

Slope (Volts/Sample)
•zero slope

Voltage (Volts/Cell)
1.5 Curve

0.0005
Zero
•inflection point (d2V/dt2) 1.4 Slope
0.0000
Slope Curve
1.3

1.2 -0.0005
1 5 10 15 20 24

Tim e

Figure 9-17
 Vmax method

• senses the increase in battery

voltage as the battery
approaches full charge
0.0020

• However, this is accurate only on

1.8
- V

a highly individualized basis

1.7 0.0015

Voltage Curve

Slope (Volts/Sample)
1.6
•

Voltage (Volts/Cell)
It is necessary to know the exact Inflection
Curve
0.0010

1.5

value at the voltage peak Zero

0.0005
1.4
[ otherwise the batteries may be
Slope
0.0000
Slope Curve
1.3
over or undercharged]
1.2 -0.0005

• Temperature compensation is 1 5 10 15

Time
20 24

also required because of the

negative temperature coefficient
of battery voltage Figure 9-17

• Generally not recommended for

fast charge rates.
 Negative delta voltage (-ΔV) method
• Most popular fast charge termination
schemes
• Depends on the characteristic drop in
cell voltage that occurs when a
battery enters overcharge [With most
NiCd cells, the voltage drop is a very 1.8
0.0020

- V
consistent indicator] 1.7 0.0015

• Fine up to 1C Voltage Curve

Slope (Volts/Sample)
1.6

Voltage (Volts/Cell)
0.0010
Inflection

• An inherent problem is that the 1.5 Curve

0.0005

batteries must be driven into the

Zero
1.4 Slope

overcharge region [Pressures and

0.0000
Slope Curve
1.3

temperatures rise very rapidly at fast 1.2

1 5
-0.0005
10 15 20 24
charge rates beyond 1C] Time

• In cyclic applications the battery must

be able to endure that continual Figure 9-17
abuse
 Zero slope and inflection point methods
0.0020
1.8

•Zero slope method 1.7

- V
0.0015

Voltage Curve

•Monitors the point where

Slope (Volts/Sample)
1.6

Voltage (Volts/Cell)
0.0010
Inflection
Curve

the slope of the battery

1.5
0.0005
Zero

voltage reaches zero

1.4 Slope
0.0000
Slope Curve
1.3

•reliable for rapid charge 1.2

1 5 10 15 20 24
-0.0005

rates up to 4C Time

•less susceptible to noise

on the voltage sense lines Figure 9-17

•However, a few types of •Inflection point method (d2V/dt2) method

batteries [i.e the NiCd •The most sensitive indicator to
button cells ] may have a prevent over charging!
voltage slope that never
quite reaches zero •Relies on the sharp changes in the
voltage slope at peak of charging
• Therefore, the zero slope
method is better suited as •Excellent primary charge termination
a backup method. method up to 4C rates
NiMH voltage and temperature charcteristics

1 .6 0 70

1 .5 5 60

1 .5 0 50

Battery Temperature (0C)

V o ltag e
CellVoltage

1 .4 5 40
T em p eratu re
1 .4 0 30

1 .3 5 20

1 .3 0 10

1 .2 5 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

C h arg e In p u t (% o f T y p ical C ap acity )

(b )
 SLA charging methods
• SLA batteries are charged using a
“Constant-Potential” (CP) regimen
• Employs a voltage source with a
deliberately imposed current limit (a
current-limited voltage regulator)
100
• The current limiting function of the CP C u rren t
regimen serves to keep the peak charging L im it
current within the battery's ratings.
C ap acity
• Following the current limited phase of the C h arg e
R etu rn ed

charging profile, a SLA battery exposed to C u rren t

Charging Current

State of Charge
a constant voltage will exhibit a tapering
current profile as shown in Figure
• When returned charge reaches 110% -
115% of rated capacity, the charge cycle is
complete
• The specifics of fast-charging SLA
batteries are more vendor-dependent than
those of NiCd or NiMH units T im e
• When that current drops below 0.01C, the
battery is fully charged. If it will be in
standby for a month or more, a trickle F ig u re 9 -1 9
current of 0.002C should be maintained.
 SLA charger ICs
•For more stringent charge control S in k
1
6
D riv e r
S o u rc e
1
5
C o m p e n sa tio n
1
4
V o lta g e

recommendations, [ battery temperature,

Amp
C u rre n t 13
- V o lta g e S e n se
L im it
+ +

voltage, and current need be sampled], 4 S e n se

C /L - V REF
C o m p a ra to r
-
C / S O ut 1 +

many dedicated charge controller ICs are

C u rre n t S e n se
C / S+ 3 +
H ig h -> .9 5 V R E F
C /S - 2 -
L o w -> .9 0 V R E F

available
11 T ric k le B ia s
25m V
+ V In 5
V REF - 12 C h a rg e E n a b le
V REF
2 .3 0 V
+
@ 25OC
G ro u n d 6 -3 .9 m V /C E n a b le
C o m p a ra to r V REF S ta te L e v e l
10
C o n tro l

•Bq2031 lead acid fast charge IC from

UV
S e n se

P ow er 7
9 O v e r C h a rg e

Texas/Benchmarq Microelectronics
In d ic a te
R R In d ic a te
Q Q
L1 L2
O v e r C h a rg e 8 S S
T e rm in a te

•UC3906 from Texas/Unitrode Integrated (a )

Circuits are examples.

RS

Figure shows a block diagram

+ +
In p u t
B a tte ry
S u p p ly
RT

and one implementation of

RA -
16 15 14
U C 2906 D riv e r Com p.
V re f
V in

UC3906 in a dual step current

RB
+
V o lta g e A m p .
+
- 13
C /L
4
-

charger. Texas/ Unitrode 1

3
250m V

+
S e n se C o m p .
+
-

RD RC

Application Note U-104 provide

C /S .9 / .9 5 V re f
2 -

25m V 11
+ V in
5
V re f - 12

details about sealed-lead acid

2 .3 0 V
+
@ 25OC E n a b le
6 Com p.
V re f
10

charge control using UC3906. 7

UV
S e n se

C h a rg e S ta te
S ta te
L evel

In p u t P o w e r L o g ic 9
M o n ito r

OC
P o w e r In d . O C T e rm .
In d .

(b )
 Li-ion chargers
• Lithium-Ions require a constant potential charging regimen
• As with lead-acid batteries, a Li-Ion cell under charge will reduce its current
draw as it approaches full charge
• If the cell vendor’s recommendation for charging voltage (generally 4.20V
±50mV at 230C) is followed, the cells will be able to completely recharge
from any “normal” level of discharge within five hours
• At the end of that time, the charging voltage should be removed
• Trickle current is not recommended
• If the voltage on a Li-Ion cell falls below 1.0V, recharging of that cell
should not be attempted
• If the voltage is between 1.0V and the manufacturer’s nominal minimum
voltage (typically 2.5V to 2.7V), it may be possible to salvage the cell by
charging it with a 0.1C current limit until the voltage across the cell reaches
the nominal minimum, followed by a fast-charge
• Due to special characteristics of Li-Ion batteries, most Li-Ion manufacturers
incorporate custom circuits into their battery packs to monitor the voltage
across each cell within the battery and to provide protection against
overcharge, battery reversal, and other major faults
• These circuits are not to be confused with charging circuits. For example
MC 33347 protection circuit is such a monolithic IC from Motorola .
Representative charging recommendations for different batteries

NiCd or NiMH Sealed Lead Acid Li-Ion

Charging Current 1C 1.5C 1C
Voltage per Cell 1.80 2.5 4.20 ± 0.05
(Volts)
Charging time (hours) ~3 ~3 2.5 to 5.0
Method for optimum See Table 5.4 Current cut off Typically a timer (1)
fast-charge
termination point
Back-up charge
termination method See Table 5.4 Timer -----
“Top off” rate 0.1C 0.002 (trickle)
Temperature range 100-400 (NiCd) 0-300 0-400
(0C) 150-300 (NiMH)
(1) Depending on manufacturers recommendation
 Discharge and EODV determination
•Determination of the point at which a battery has delivered all of its usefully
dischargeable energy is important to the longevity of the cells

•Discharging any single cell in a battery pack too far will often cause
irreversible physical damage inside the cell

•If multiple cells are placed in series, unavoidable imbalances in their capacities
can cause the phenomenon known as “cell reversal” [in which the higher-
capacity cells force a backward current through the lowest-capacity cel].

•Knowing the End of Discharge (EOD) point provides a “zero capacity”

reference for coulometric gas gauging

•The actual determination of the EOD point is typically done by monitoring cell
voltage

•For the most accurate determination of EOD when the load is varying,
correction factors for load current and the battery’s state of charge should be
applied, especially to Lead-Acid and Li-Ion batteries

•The essentially flat discharge profiles of NiCd and NiMH make these
corrections a matter of user discretion for most load profiles
Typical End of Discharge Voltages

Cell Type EODV (Volts) Comments

Lead Acid 1.35 to 1.9 V Dependent upon loading, state of charge, cell
(1.8 V Typical) construction and manufacturer
NiCd 0.9 Essentially constant
NiMH 0.9 Essentially constant within recommended range of
discharge rates
Li-Ion 2.5o to 2.70 Dependent upon manufacturer, loading and state of
charge
 Gas Gauging or Coulometric Methods to determine the State of
charge

• Concept of considering a battery as a fuel tank

• Coulometric gas gauging meters the actual charge (current X time)
going into and out of the battery
• By integrating the difference of current in and current out, it is
possible to determine the charge status of the battery at any given
time
• There are details which must be observed in the actual
implementation of such a gas gauge-
– It is necessary to have an accurate starting point for the integrator corresponding to a known
state of charge in the battery. [This is often resolved by zeroing the integrator when the
battery reaches its EODV]
– Compensation for the temperature. [The actual capacity of batteries increases with
temperature, that of nickel based batteries decreases as battery temperature rises]
– Appropriate conversion factors should be applied for the particular charge regimen and
discharge profile used.
 Battery health and SOH

• Battery health is defined as a battery’s actual capacity relative to its rated

capacity

• Health of the battery can be determined and maintained in three steps:

– Discharge the battery to the EOD point, preferably into a known load
– Execute a complete charge cycle, while gas gauging the battery
– Compare the battery's measured capacity to its rated capacity

• This sequence will simultaneously “condition” the battery (which means to

overcome the so-called “memory effect” of capacity of NiCd batteries, for
example), and will indicate the capacity of the battery after conditioning

• The information so obtained can be used to ascertain whether the battery is

in good shape, or is approaching the end of its useful life.

However batteries are very complex chemical

systems and this process of monitoring health is
more complicated in general
 System Management Bus, Smart Battery Data Specifications
and related standards
• After mid 90’s new industry standards were proposed to standardize the
battery and power management subsystems within portable products
• Following are the standards proposed :
– System Management Bus Specification [SMBus]
– Smart Battery Data (SBD) Specification
– Smart Battery Charger Specification
– Smart Battery Selector Specification
The above specifications form the Smart Battery Systems [SBS] Specification
•A solution for many of the issues related to batteries used in portable equipment
such as lap top computer systems, cellular telephones or video cameras
• Fundamental to the SBS system is the concept that the battery contains all
of the necessary components to determine
•the battery’s state-of-charge
•predict time to full and time to empty
•specify
•the charging voltage and curren
•determine when the battery condition [fully charged to fully
discharged]
 Typical smart battery system
AC

Communication is V CC
S y ste m
DC
(U n re g u la te d
A C /D C
± 12 V B a tte ry ) Pow er
based on I2C bus Pow er
S u p p ly
S w itc h
C o n v e te r
(u n re g u la te d )

Thermistor

Thermistor
S m a rt B a tte ry A S m a rt B a tte ry B

SMBus

SMBus
BATT

BATT
V

V
SM Bus
S y ste m S m a rt B a tte ry S m a rt B a tte ry
H o st S e le c to r C h a rg e r
T h e rm isto r
V C h a rg e
N o te :
* S m a rt B a tte ry A p o w e rin g th e sy ste m
* S m a rt B a tte ry B u n d e r c o n d itio n in g
a n d c h a rg in g
C ritic a l E v e n ts
SM B
B a tte ry D a ta /S ta tu s R e q u e sts

(a )

Cells
F ig u r e 9 - 21

SMBC/Communication Clock B-
C bq219XL B+
D
SMBD/Serial Data P-

Pack- Pack+

Load

Charger

An implementation using a commercial IC

 Semiconductors for battery management

•Within the last 15 years many battery management ICs came into the market
•Common ones are
•Simple voltage regulators
•Charge controllers
•Processor based battery charge management ICs
•ASICs etc
•Following information from battery packs are used in these
•Battery terminal voltage
•Charge/Discharge current
•Cell case temperature
•Specialized details (such as battery impedance)
A microcontroller based universal battery monitor
O sc illa to r

P ack +
V C C R e g u la to r
and
R e fe re n c e

B attery M ic ro c o n tro lle r

A n alo g
S ig n al EEPROM
T h erm isto r C o n d itio n in g C a lib ra tio n
and
B a tte ry
In fo rm a tio n

S en se
P ack - R esisto r

S v b clo ck

S v b d ata

F ig u re 9 -2 2
An ASIC solution [Texas/Benchmarq 2010]
Ref

Supply
Reference
Dynamically
Balanced
Integrating Filter RISC Program
A/D Convertor and M icrocontroller ROM
Control

Temperature
Compensated
Oscillator

Chg
RAM ADC Interface Empty
Disp
DQ

Voltage
Reference

SR SB SEG LCOM

(a)

Q1
BQ2010
REF RB 1
0.01  F
V CC
LCOM C1
SB
LED SEG1/Prog1 V CC
RB
LED SEG2/Prog2 2

LED SEG3/Prog2 DISP Charger Load

LED SEG4/Prog4
SR
LED SEG5/Prog5
RS
LED SEG6/ProgG6
V SS

EMPTY

DQ

Indicates Optional

(b)
Figure 9-23
 ASICs with SMB interface

P ack +

BATTERY

bq2040
EEPR O M
C alib ratio n
an d
SENSE B attery
R E S IS T O R In fo rm atio n

P ack -

S v b clo ck

S v b d ata

F ig u re 9 -2 4
 Li-ion protection ICs

C9
Pos

R2
Q1 Q2

C8
R1
Q3
These reside inside the battery
packs to prevent over charge or Chg D sg B a t1
C4
over discharge of individual cells I C tl NSEL
a battery pack V SS UVD
C1
C2 B a t2
CSL OVD C5

B a t4N OCD
C3
B a t3N V CC B a t3
C6
B a t2N CSH
B a t1N B a t1P
B a t4
bq2058 C7

N eg

Figure 9-25