Ionic bonding

(metal + non-metal)

Ionic bonds form a giant

lattice structure
 Sodium chloride
Sodium chloride is an ionic compound formed by the reaction
between the metal sodium and the non-metal chlorine.

sodium chlorine sodium chloride

Na + Cl NaCl

During the reaction, one electron is transferred from each

sodium atom to each chlorine atom.
Sodium chloride
Sodium has 1 electron in its outer shell. Chlorine has 7 electrons in its outer shell. If it
If it loses this electron, it will have no gains 1 electron, it will completely fill its
partially-filled shells. outer shell.

-
+

Na Cl

2.8.1 [2.8]+ 2.8.7 [2.8.8]-

Sodium chloride
The positive sodium ions and the negative chloride ions are strongly
attracted to each other and form an ionic bond.

-
+

Na Cl
Lithium Oxide
+

Li
2-

2.1 [2]+ O

Li

2.6 [2.8]2-
 -
Magnesium fluoride
F

2+

Mg 2.7 [2.8]-
-

2.8.2 [2.8]2+
Magnesium Oxide
Explain how magnesium oxide is
formed.

• Magnesium loses 2 electrons

• Oxygen gains 2 electron
• Magnesium becomes 2+ ion
• Oxygen becomes 2- ion
• Held to together in ionic lattice
Calcium chloride - CaCl2
Explain how CaCl2 is formed:

• Calcium loses 2 electrons

• Each chlorine atom gains 1 electron
• Two chlorine atoms needed
• Forms ionic bond
 Covalent bonding
(non-metal + non-metal)

Simple molecules Giant covalent structures

Simple molecules HYDROGEN

WAYS TO REPRESENT THE

MOLECULE

H H H H
Hydrogen atom needs Another hydrogen
one electron to
complete its outer shell
atom also needs one
electron to complete H H
its outer shell
atoms share a pair of electrons to
form a single covalent bond
A hydrogen MOLECULE is formed
Simple molecules HYDROGEN CHLORIDE

Cl H

Hydrogen atom also

needs one electron to
Chlorine atom needs
complete its outer shell
one electron to
complete its outer
shell

WAYS TO REPRESENT THE MOLECULE

atoms share a pair of

H Cl H Cl electrons to form a single
covalent bond
Simple molecules
AMMONIA WAYS TO REPRESENT
THE MOLECULE

H N H

H H
Each hydrogen N
atom needs
one electron to
complete its
H H N H
Nitrogen atom needs 3
outer shell
H
electrons to complete its
outer shell H
Nitrogen can only share 3 of its 5
electrons otherwise it will exceed
the maximum of 8
A LONE PAIR REMAINS
 Covalent bonding - molecules
Hydrogen - H2 Oxygen - O2 (g)
(g)
Chlorine - Cl2
(g) Hydrogen chloride
HCl (g)

Methane – CH4
(g)

Water – H2O (l) Ammonia – NH3 (g)

Limitations of using models –
doesn’t show the shape
In a metal the atoms LOSE SEVERAL OF THEIR OUTER
ELECTRONS which drift around between the metal ions as
FREE ELECTRONS.

Atoms become
POSITIVE ions
because they have
LOST electrons

Free (“delocalised”)
electrons
 Metallic bonding
• Metals have a structure of positive metal ions held together by a “sea”
of electrons – causes electrostatic attraction
• We call these electrons delocalized
• Ions are arranged in layers
• Forms a giant lattice structure
Predicting states using melting
and boiling points
Substance Melting Point Boiling Point State at room
(˚C) (˚C) temperature
Water 0 99.98 Liquid
Carbon Dioxide -78 -57 Gas
Methane -182 -164 Gas
Hydrogen -259.1 -252.8 Gas
Ammonia -77.73 -33.34 Gas

Melting point Boiling point

Solid Liquid Gas

 State Symbols

(s) – solid

(l) – liquid

(g) – gas

(aq) – dissolved in water

NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH– (aq)

Properties of ionic compounds – giant lattices

High Melting point – lots of ENERGY needed to break the

strong bonds (strong electrostatic attraction)

Solubility - Can dissolve in water which enables the ions to

move

Conduction - When MOLTEN or DISSOLVED IN WATER, ionic

compounds can conduct electricity because the ions can carry
current/charge (not electricity)
Covalent bonding – simple molecules
Hydrogen - H2 (g) Oxygen - O2 (g) Properties of covalent compounds
• A covalent bond is a shared pair of
Chlorine - Cl2 (g) Methane – CH4 (g)
electrons

• Substances that consist of simple

molecules are gases, liquids or solids
Hydrogen chloride that have relatively low melting points
HCl (g)
and boiling points due to weak
intermolecular bonds
Ammonia – NH3 (g)
Water – H2O (l)
• They do not conduct electricity because
the molecules do not have an overall
electric charge. No free electrons or
ions.
 Polymers

• Molecules are linked with strong covalent bonds

• Intermolecular forces between polymers are relatively strong
• Polymers are usually solid at room temperature
 Giant covalent structure of diamond

Carbon structures - diamond

Diamond
• Diamond is made only from carbon atoms.
• Every carbon makes four covalent bonds to achieve a full outer shell.

• Every carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms.

• This means the structure keeps on growing!
• We make a Giant Covalent Structure.
Key properties –
• Diamond is very hard.
• High melting points – because it has strong covalent bonds
(which take a lot of energy to break)
 Giant covalent structure of graphite
Carbon structures - graphite
Graphite
• Graphite is made only from carbon atoms.
• Every carbon makes 3 covalent bonds to achieve a full outer shell.
• Forms hexagonal rings, arranged in layers
• Weak intermolecular forces between the layers
• Every carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms

Key properties – • High melting point

• Graphite is very soft. • Conducts electricity – free
• Slippery – arranged in layers electrons
Metallic bonding – giant structures
Conducts electricity and heat
Delocalised electrons can move
through the structure

Malleable
Ions arranged in layers so ions are
able to slide over each other

High melting and boiling points

Ions held together by strong
electrostatic attraction so needs a
lot of energy to break the bonds
 Metallic bonding - alloys

Alloys

• Mixture of metals of
different sizes.

• Distorts the layers

• Layers can’t slide

Covalent bonding - Giant
Besides graphite and diamond, carbon can also
form another type of giant covalent structure.

Fullerenes (named after the scientists that

discovered them) are made by conjoined
hexagonal carbon rings

Possible uses of Fullerenes in the future could be:

• Drug delivery
• In lubricants
• As catalysts in reactions
• To make carbon nanotubes to reinforce structures
 Nano particles
• Structures that are 1-100nm in size, or of the order of a few hundred
atoms

Particle name Symbol Diameter (nm) Diameter (m)

Smaller
Nano particle than 100 – 2500 nm 1 x 10-7m – 2.5 x 10-6 m
PM2.5
Coarse PM10
particle 2500nm – 10 000 nm 2.5 x 10-6 m – 1 x 10-5 m
Nano particles
 Nanoparticles
Advantages Disadvantages
• Large surface area makes them effective • So small they can enter the skin and
catalysts. therefore the bloodstream.
• Nanotubes can be used in small scale • Easily become airborne, breathing in can
circuits as nanowires. potentially damage the lungs.

Nanoparticles are present in sun screens

May be used to develop faster computers, lighter construction materials and new coatings