MODULE VI
VIEWS, PROCEDURES
AND TRIGGERS
Views
• Views
– Definition of View
– Creating Views
– Selecting a contents of View
– Modify data using Views
– Aggregate Functions
Definition of View
• Can be defined as virtual tables
• Contains Subset of data from a table or two
or more than two
• Does not store any data
• Picks up the information from the table and
displays it
Creation of View
• Syntax
CREATE VIEW <view_name> AS
SELECT <column_name(s) > FROM
table_name>[, table_name]
• Example
CREATE VIEW emp_view AS
SELECT ename,empno FROM emp
where deptno=30
View must not have same name as base table
or any other view
Creating View From Multiple
Tables
• Example
CREATE VIEW emp_dept_view AS
SELECT empno, ename, deptno, dname FROM
emp e, dept d
WHERE e.deptno=d.deptno
• When View is created from multiple tables
a intermediary table is created to with all
the combinations
• In the above example intermediary table
contains empno, ename, deptno, dname
Selecting View Contents
• Syntax
SELECT <column_name(s)> FROM view_name
WHERE condition
• Example
SELECT ename FROM emp_view where empno=10
•
Modification Through Views
• Data can be modified through views
• Modifications are done at table level
• Update can be done for only one table at a time
• Update cannot be done on view that has a
computed Column
• Example
UPDATE emp_view SET SAL=20 WHERE
ename=‘SMITH’
Aggregation Functions
• Aggregation functions such as MIN, MAX,
AVG etc., can be used views
• If the first select statement has distinct key
word or a column function such as MAX
then view is read only
• View with sub- queries is also ready only
• Example
– CREATE VIEW emp_view1 AS
– SELECT AVG(sal) FROM emp
– GROUP BY deptno
Control Flow Statements
• DECLARE - is used to declare a variable
– Syntax DECLARE <variable>
– Example DECLARE @name
• BEGIN … END - are used to enclose the
program statements. Usually called block
• Every Block should have BEGIN and END
• Syntax
BEGIN
<statements>
<statements>
END
If else statement
• Usually called conditional statement
• Takes Boolean Expression as as argument
• Based on the condition if block is executed
otherwise else block is executed
– Example
DECLARE @age int
SET @age=20
IF @age < 10
BEGIN
Print cast(@age as varchar(20) ) + ‘less than 10’
ELSE
Print cast(@age as varchar(20) ) + ‘greater than 10’
While Loop
• Used to execute a set of statement repeatedly
• Takes Boolean expression as argument
• Remains in the loop as long as expression is True
Syntax
WHILE boolean_expr
BEGIN
<Statements>
<Statements>
END
Break and Continue
• Break statement can be used to exit the loop
unconditionally
• Continue Statement is used to re-evaluate
Boolean Expression and start loop from the
beginning discarding the statements after
continue
WHILE Boolean_expression
BEGIN
Statements
CONTINUE
Statements
BREAK
END
DECLARE @P INT
Declare @ s int
set @s =20
while(@s <30)
begin
set @p=@s +1
continue
Goto, Return and WaitFor
• Goto
– is used to branch to a defined label
– Used for error handling
• Return
– used to stop execution of batch, trigger, procedure
– takes an integer as an argument
– 0 - zero indicates successful execution
– -1 to -99 are reserved numbers
– user should specify out of this range
• WAITFOR
– used to halt the execution for a specified delay
(WAITFOR DELAY) or specified time (WAITFOR
Procedures
• Creating Procedures
• Modification of Procedures
• Procedures with parameters
• Execution of Store Procedures
• System Stored Procedures
• Auto Execution of Store Procedures
Creating A Procedure
• Procedures are created using CREATE
• syntax
CREATE procedure <procedure_name>
AS select statements
• Always created in the current database
• It is executed using EXECUTE statement
• It is like any other high level language
procedure
• CREATE PROCEDURE empproc
AS select * from emp WHERE sal >2000
EXECUTE empproc
Modification Of Procedures
• Procedures can be modified using ALTER
• Syntax of ALTER is same as CREATE but
CREATE is replaced by ALTER
• Example
• ALTER PROCEDURE empproc
• as select * from emp where sal>3000 and
deptno=20
Deletion Of Procedure
• Procedure can be deleted using DROP
• Once if deleted, it no more exists in
memory
• Syntax:
– DROP PROCEDURE <procedure name>
• Example
– DROP PROCEDURE empproc
Procedures With Parameters
• Parameters can be passed to a procedure
• Parameters name must begin with @ symbol
• Parameter must be declared with a data type
• All parameters are treated as input parameters
• Output parameters must be specified with
OUTPUT keyword
• When procedure returns the output it will have
last assigned value
• OUTPUT keyword must also be specified with
the argument in execute statement
Example
Create procedure getdata
@name varchar(20), @amount int output
as
set @amount=(select sal from emp
where empname=@name)
execute getdata ‘smith’ , @amount output
SYSTEM STORED PROCEDURES
The stored procedures that are preceded with sp_ are said to be system-
stored procedures. Some of the available system stored procedures are
•Sp_help procedure name Displays the procedure’s
owner and when it was
created.
•Sp_helptext procedure name Displays source code for the
procedure
•Sp_depends procedure name Displays a list of objects
that the procedure references
•Sp_rename old procedure name
New procedure name, object type Renames the existing
procedure.
Triggers
• Create and use Triggers
– INSERT Trigger
– UPDATE Trigger
– DELETE Trigger
• Enforce data integrity through triggers
– Data Integrity
– Referential Integrity
• Business Rules
• Nested Triggers
• Altering Triggers
• Dropping Triggers
Creating Triggers
• Is a special Stored Procedure executes when an
event occurs such as INSERT, UPDATE,
DELETE.
• Stored as an object in database
• Always attached to single table
• Trigger cannot create on View
• Syntax:
CREATE TRIGGER [owner] trigger_name
ON [owner] table_name [with Encryption ]
{for {INSERT | UPDATE | DELETE }
AS
[IF UPDATE (column_name)…] [{AND | OR} UPDATE
(column_name)…] SQL statement
Insert Trigger
• Executed when a new row is inserted in a table
• New rows are stored in the inserted Table
• Inserted Table is a logical table
• One can compare data with the help of inserted Table
Example
CREATE TRIGGER data_ent
ON sales FOR INSERT AS
IF(SELECT COUNT(*) FROM item, inserted
WHERE item.item_name=inserted.item_name)=0
rollback transaction
Delete Trigger
• Executed when a row is deleted in a table
• New rows are stored in the deleted Table
• deleted Table is a logical table
• A row appended to deleted table does not exist in
database table
• Example
CREATE TRIGGER del_trig
ON item FOR DELETE AS
DELETE purchase
FROM purchase, deleted
WHERE purchase.item_no=deleted.item_no
Update Trigger
• Executed when a row is updated in a table
• New rows are stored in the inserted Table
• Original rows goes to the deleted table
• Update trigger can be written on column also
Example
CREATE TRIGGER upd_trig
ON item
FOR UPDATE AS
IF UPDATE(item_no)
rollback transaction
Enforcing Data Integrity
•
Nested Triggers
• A trigger can contain update, insert or
delete statements that effect another table
• Can be used to perform functions such as
storage of back-up copies of rows effected
by previous trigger
• Configuration option is set to on by
default.
• Will not fire twice in the same transaction
• If failed at any level all modifications are
rolled back
Altering Triggers
• Triggers that are created can be altered
• To alter a trigger ALTER TRIGGER key
word must be used
• Used to change the existing definition of the
trigger and replaced by a new definition
• Example
Dropping Trigger
• A trigger can be removed by dropping it
• Triggers are dropped automatically when
associated tables are dropped
• Permission to drop trigger is available to
owner, but system administrator and
database owner can drop any object.
• DROP TRIGGER <trigger Name>
