ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION
CHAPTER 1
1
Introduction to communication – modes and means
• Communication refers to transmission of information from one location to the
other.
• Information can be of different types such as speech, music, picture, videos,
computer data etc
• Information transmission may take place via speech, facial expression, hand
gestures etc. and is limited to few meters
• For long distance communication, humans employed non-electrical means like
messengers, pigeons, drum beats etc.
• Electronic Communication refers to sending, receiving and processing of
information by electronic modes and means.
• The birth of electricity led to the development various modes of telecommunication
like telegraph, telephone, television, mobile and satellite communication.
• In modern society the various modes of communication include landline
telephone, television (cable or dish), fax machine, mobile phone, computer with
internet etc.
2
3
Introduction to communication – modes and means
• Communication medium (physical) or means is the channel between the
transmitter and receiver.
• Communication system can be broadly classified into 2 types:
Wire Communication (Line Communication):
• Uses the communication medium like cables or optical fiber.
• Due to physical connection, these systems cannot be used over long
distances.
• Eg. Telegraph, telephone, cable TV.
(Wireless Communication) Radio Communication:
• Use the free space as their communication medium.
• Transmits signal using an antenna.
• The receiving antenna will pick up this signal and feed it to the receiver.
• The transmitted signal is in the form of electromagnetic waves.
4
Classification of communication system based on direction
Simplex System: In this system information is transmitted in
one direction only Ex. Radio or TV
Half Duplex System: This system can transmit and receive
but not simultaneously Ex. Walky Talky
Full Duplex System: This system allow communication to
take place in both direction simultaneously Ex. Telephone
5
Classification based on the technique of signal transmission
Baseband Transmission:
The information or the input signal to a communication system can be
analog i.e. sound or digital i.e computer data.
The electrical equivalent of this original information is known as the
baseband signal.
In Baseband transmission System, the baseband signals are directly
transmitted.
Ex. Telephone networks where the sound signal is converted into electrical signal and is
placed directly on the telephone lines for transmission (Local Calls)
Computer data transmission over the Twisted pair cables in the computer network (Local
Area Network - LAN)
6
Transmission using Modulation
Baseband transmission cannot be used when the medium is free space (Radio
Transmission) as it cannot travel long distance in air.
Therefore for the radio transmission of baseband signal, a technique called
Modulation is used.
The baseband signal is called “ modulating signal” and the high frequency signal
is called the “ Carrier signal”.
Modulation is the process of superimposing the
information contents (message signal / baseband
signal) on a high frequency carrier signal by varying
the characteristics of carrier signal according to the
modulating signal
The carrier signal will carry the modulating signal to the destination.
Ex : Amplitude Modulation (AM) / Frequency Modulation (FM)
7
Need for modulation
• Avoids mixing of signals when we transmit signals with nearly same
frequency in the audio frequency range (20Hz-20 KHz).
• Higher frequency can give more efficient transmission i.e range of
transmission will increase.
• Reduction in the height of the antenna.
In wireless, the information is carried by EM wave which travel at the speed of light in air or
vacuum.
The relation between frequency and wavelength is given by c=fλ
λ is wavelength in m, c is the speed of light and f is the frequency of transmitted wave in Hz.
Minimum height of the antenna the quarter wavelength (λ/4)
• Multiplexing is possible, transmit several signal simultaneously.
• Improves quality of reception, reduce noise and optimize SNR
8
Block diagram of an e-communication systems
Basic elements of communication system are
Information source with Input Transducers
Transmitter
Channel
Noise
Receiver
Destination.
9
Block diagram of an e-communication system cont.
Information Source:
•Communication system is to convey information from one point to the other and
originates from information source.
•The information source converts into a physical quantity for ex. speech, written
script or picture (message).
•The message signal is converted from non-electrical to electrical form by using a
transducer and is input to transmitter.
10
Transmitter :
•The transmitter block collects the incoming message signal and performs
various operations like amplification, generation of high frequency carrier signal,
modulation and then radiation of the modulated signal.
•The modulation involves varying one of the three parameters amplitude,
frequency or phase of the high frequency carrier in accordance with the
variation of the message signal.
•The modulated signal is then transmitted using a copper wire / fiber optic or
radiated into the atmosphere using an antenna which converts electrical energy
into free space electromagnetic (EM) waves and vice versa at the receiver.
Channel:
•Is a physical medium which connects the transmitter with that of a receiver.
•The physical medium includes copper wire, coaxial wire, fiber optic cable,
waveguide and free space
11
Noise:
•Noise is an unwanted electrical signal which gets added to the transmitted signal
when it is travelling towards the receiver.
•The noise can be either external or internal.
Receiver:
•The receiver the incoming modulated signal from the channel and process it to
recreate the original form of the message signal.
•The super heterodyne type receiver includes processing steps like reception of
weak signal, mixing, amplification, demodulation and recreation of message signal.
Destination:
•The destination or output of the receiver converts the electrical message signal
back to its original form.
•The destination may be a loud speaker, Video display unit, recorder, printer,
Various radar displays.
12
Frequency allocation for radio communication system in
India (TRAI)
• Spectrum is a collection of various types of electromagnetic radiations of
different wavelengths.
• Radio frequency is a natural resource but unlike other resources it will
deplete when used. But it will be wasted if not used efficiently.
Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI):
• A statutory body set up by the Government of India under section 3 of the
Telecom Regulatory Authority of India Act, 1997.
• Regulates the telecommunication sector of India.
13
Frequency allocation for radio communication system in India
(TRAI)
Mission:
• To create and nurture conditions for the growth of telecommunications in
India to enable the country to have a leading role in the emerging global
information society.
Objective:
• To provide a fair and transparent environment that promotes a level playing
field and facilitates fair competition in the market.
• TRAI regularly issues orders and directions on various subjects such as
tariffs, interconnections, quality of service, Direct To Home (DTH) services
and Mobile number portability.
14
Electromagnetic radiation
Any power escaping into free space is radiated and propagated into
space as an electromagnetic wave.
EM waves are energy propagated through free space at the velocity of
light.
Also the direction of the electric field, the magnetic field, and propagation
are mutually perpendicular.
As with light, the EM wave can undergo reflection, refraction and
diffraction.
15
Electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic energy, a combination
of electric and magnetic fields
Radio waves
Microwaves
Infra red light
Visible light
Ultraviolet Light
X- rays,
Gamma rays
cosmic rays
Each of these constitutes a portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
16
Electromagnetic Spectrum – cont…
17
Band designations and usage
18
Base-band signals and Passband Signls
19
Propagation of waves: Unguided Media
Once the EM wave leaves the antenna(radiated) it can take one of the
three basic paths:
1.Along the surface of the earth (Ground Wave Propagation)
2.Upto the layer called ionosphere” and back (Sky wave)
3.From Tx to Rx in a straight line (Space wave propagation)
20
Propagation of waves: Ground wave
• Ground waves travel along the surface of the earth
• Frequency range of 30 KHz to 3 MHz
• Ground waves are vertically polarized
• It tilts progressively and eventually die. This limit the range.
• The service range is a few hundred kilometer
• Power loss takes place due to absorption by ground and due to tilting of waves
• The problem of fading is not very severe.
• Used for radio broadcasting (MW range)
21
Propagation of waves: Sky Waves
• Sky wave are reflected from the ionosphere
• It exist in the range of 3 MHz to 30 MHz
• Used for radio broadcast (SW range)
• Vertically polarized
• The transmission is limited to skip distance and curvature of the earth
• Service range can be few thousand kilometer
• Power loss due to absorption of energy by ionospheric layers
• Problem of fading is severe. Diversity reception is used
22
Propagation of waves: Space Waves
• It exist from frequencies above 30 MHz
• Used for FM broadcasting
• Horizontally polarized
• The transmission path is limited by the line of sight and radio horizon
• It travels in a straight tine from Tx to Rx through space
• Service range is not more than 100 kilometer
• Power loss due to absorption and scattering by the tall objects
• Problem of fading is not severe.
23
Channels: Transmission lines
• Transmission lines are considered to be impedance-matching circuits
designed to deliver power (RF) from the transmitter to the antenna and
maximum signal from the antenna to the receiver.
• Commonly used transmission lines are parallel wire (balanced) and the
coaxial (unbalanced) line.
• It is employed at UHF and microwave frequencies to avoid the risk of
radiation from the transmission line itself.
• Between 1 and 18GHz, waveguides or coaxial lines are used whereas
waveguides are not used below 1 GHz.
24
Transmission lines: Equivalent Circuit and impedance
• Each conductor of a certain length and diameter will have a resistance and
inductor.
• Since there are two wires in a line there will be capacitance between them. The
two wires are separated by the dielectric which cannot be perfect in its insulation,
the current leakage through it is represented by a shunt conductance.
• At radio frequencies, the inductive reactance and capacitive susceptance is large.
Both R and G can be ignored resulting in a line that is lossless.
• Characteristic impedance of a transmission line (Zo) is the impedance measured
at the input of this line when its length is infinite.
• Losses in transmission lines are radiation, conductor and dielectric heating.
25
26
Guided Media
• Twisted pair and coaxial cable use metallic ( copper) conductors that accept and
transport signals in the form of electric field.
• Twisted pair cable wire comes with a jacket and outside sheath.
• Coaxial cable has a central core conductor enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in
turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil. The outer conductor serves as a
shield against noise.
• Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transport signals in the form of light.
Eg: The Cat RG-59 ---cable TV (characteristics impedance of 75 ohm)
Eg: Cat RG-58 or RG - 11 ---digital transmission (characteristics impedance of 50 ohm).
• The most common type of connector is called BNC connector.
• Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a single coaxial
cable could carry 10,000 voice signals.
27
Guided Media
• Fiber optic is made up of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the
form of light. It is often found in backbone networks because its
wideband is cost-effective. Today, we can transfer data at a rate of
1600Gbps.Theoretical: 50Tbps
• Advantages: Higher bandwidth, less signal attenuation, immunity to
electromagnetic interference, resistance to corrosive materials, light
weight and greater immunity to tapping.
• Disadvantages: Installation and maintenance, Unidirectional light
propagation, Cost
28
Concept of Noise
• Noise is unwanted introduction of energy (signal) tending to interfere with the proper
reception and reproduction of transmitted signals.
• Many disturbances of an electrical nature produce noise in receivers thereby modifying
the signal.
• If the noise is very severe, it may even mask the signal to an extent that it may become
unintelligible and therefore useless
• Noise may interfere with signal at any point in the communication system, but it will
have its greatest effect when the signal is weakest.
• Noise can limit the range of systems, for a given transmitted power.
• It affects the sensitivity of receivers, by placing a limit on the weakest signals that can be
amplified.
• It may even force a reduction in the bandwidth of a system.
• Noise can be divided into two groups: noise whose sources are external to the receiver
and noise created within the receiver.
30
Types and Sources of Noise
External Noise:
• Atmospheric Noise
• Extraterrestrial (Solar Noise, Cosmic Noise)
• Industrial Noise
Internal Noise:
• Thermal Agitation Noise
• Shot Noise
• Flicker Noise, Resistance Noise and Noise in Mixers
31
External Noise
Atmospheric Noise
•Static and is caused by lighting discharges in thunderstorms and other natural
electric disturbances occurring in the atmosphere.
•Radio waves generated is heard on the receiver at short wave (SW) range.
•These spurious radio waves generated randomly by storms etc propagates
over the earth like any ordinary radio wave.
•Field strength of such waves is inversely proportional to frequency as such this
noise is more likely to interfere with the reception of radio than TV.
•Less severe at frequencies above 30 GHz.
32
External Noise
Extraterrestrial Noise:
Solar Noise
•Under normal conditions there is a constant radiation of noise from sun and it radiates
noise over a wide frequency spectrum.
•Produces electrical disturbances such as corona flares and sunspots.
Cosmic Noise:
•Distant stars are also sun and they have high temperatures, they too radiate RF noise.
•Receive noise from the centre of our own galaxy (the milky way).
•The space noise is at frequencies in the range of 8MHz to 1.43GHz.
33
External Noise
Industrial Noise
•Sources such as automobile and aircraft ignition, electric motors and switching
equipment, leakage from high voltage lines and other heavy electric machines.
34
Internal Noise
Thermal Agitation Noise:
• The noise generated by resistance or resistive component is random and is referred
as thermal or Johnson noise.
• It is due to rapid and random motion of the electrons inside the component itself.
• Using Thermodynamics principle, noise generated by a resistor is proportional to its
absolute temperature and bandwidth over which the noise is measured.
35
Internal Noise
Thermal Agitation Noise:
• An ordinary resistor at room temperature is not connected to any voltage source
will act as noise generator and since the noise generated is random.
• The noise is generated by the random movement of electrons within the resistor
which constitutes current.
• A random voltage across the resistor does exists and is calculated.
36
Problems on Thermal Noise
1) If the resistor is operating at 27 C and the bandwidth of interest is 2 MHz, then what
is the maximum noise power output of a resistor?
2) An amplifier operating over the frequency range from 18 to 20 MHz has a 10 KΩ
input resistor. What is the rms noise voltage at the input to this amplifier if the
ambient temperature is 27 C?
37
Internal Noise
Shot Noise:
• The most important of all the other sources is shot effect which leads to shot noise
in all amplifying device.
• Caused by random variations in the arrival of electrons (holes) at the output
electrode of an amplifying device and appears as randomly varying noise current
superimposed on the output.
• When amplified, it is supposed to sound as though a shower of lead shot were
falling on a metal sheet.
38
Internal Noise
Flicker Noise
• Generated due to the fluctuations in the carrier density which causes fluctuation in
the conductivity of the materials.
• Produces a fluctuating voltage drop when direct current flows through a device
(Flicker noise voltage)
Transit time noise
• If the time by electrons to travel from the emitter to collector of a transistor
becomes comparable to the period of the signal which is being amplified then the
transit time effect takes place (observed at very high frequencies).
• Due to the transit time effect some of the electrons may return back to the emitter.
This increases the conductance with frequency.
• The minute current fluctuations induces random noise in the output of the device.
39
Signal to Noise Ratio
Signal to noise (SNR or S/N)
• Measure used in the communication that compares the level of a desired signal to the
level of background noise.
• SNR is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power, often expressed in decibels.
• Ratio higher than 1:1 (greater than 0 dB) indicates more signal than noise
• If the incoming signal strength in microvolts is Vs and the noise level is microvolts, than the
signal to noise ratio S/N in decibels is given by the formula
Noise figure: Noise figure is defined in terms of the signal to noise ratio at the input and
output of the system.
40
