UNIT 3

ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
 Living cells are in constant activity.
 Macromolecules are assembled & broken into
smaller.
 Substance transported across cell
membranes.
 Genetic instructions are transmitted.
 All of these are require energy.
 But the basic question is how organisms or
cells extract energy from their envn’ts & use
it.
3.1. ENERGY
 Energy is capacity to do work.
 Metabolism is the sum of chemical rxns
takes place with in each cells of
organisms.
 It enables cells to produce energy for
vital processes & synthesize new
organic sbs.
 Broadly, these rxns can be divided into
2, Anabolism & Catabolism.
1. Anabolism:- is building process’
- Is the set of rxns involved in synthesis of
complex molecules inside cells of
 CONT…
 Anabolic process help in building of
macromolecules
like protein, Nucleic acids & polysaccharides.
2. Catabolism
- Is set of rxns involved in breakdown of complex

molecules like protein into A.A, glucose & fatty

acid.
- Also breakdown of monomers into carbon.
- main d/c b/n anabolism & catabolism is
Anabolism is constructive process while
Catabolism is destructive process.
CONT…
CONT…
 3.2. PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Is the process by w/c autotrophs made their
own food.
 Is series of rxns that use light energy to
assemble CO2 into glucose.
 Plants use H2O in the process & releases O 2
as by product.
 6CO2 + 6H2O light energy C6H12O6+6O2
+6H2O
chlorophyll
 It provides not only food for plant but also
energy, raw materials & O2 that used to
support heterotrophs.
 CONT…
 O2 is byproduct of photosynthesis.
 Contributes to C cycle on the earth.
 Contributes to symbiotic association among
plants, animals & humans.
 It serves as 1o energy process for plants
algae, Cyanobacteria, some protists, purple
S-bacteria are photoautrophs.
EXTERNAL & INTERNAL
STRUCTURE OF LEAF
 External structure of leaf consists of lamina,
petiole, apex, midrib, margin, vein & veins.
CONT…
 THE SITE OF
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1. Upper epidermis- outer & layer provides
protection.
- One cell thick & secretes waxy coating cuticle w/c
retain H2O & called waterproof.
- Protect from drying out & infection.
2. Stomata- small hole through w/c gas exchange
takes place.
-allow entry of CO2 for photosynthesis.
3. Palisade mesophyll cell.
- Found under upper epidermis
-very compact & rich in chloroplast.
-major site of photosynthesis.
 CONT…
4. Spongy mesophyll Cell: made up of parenchyma
cell.
-Has large air space w/c used to exchange gas.
-Has few chloroplast & few photosynthesis.
5. Guard cell:
- Control opening & closing of stomata through w/c

6. Mesophyll Tissue;
 Have highest density of chloroplasts.
 -A double membrane surrounds chloroplast, where
outer membrane faces cytoplasm of plant cell on
one side & intermembrane space of the
chloroplast on the other side.
 The inner membrane separates narrow
intermembrane space from aqueous interior of the
 CONT…
 Stroma is a fluid –filled matrix where the light-
independent stage of photosynthesis takes place.
 Within stroma a no of other structure such as search
grains.
 Within stroma, another set of membrane form disk-
shaped compartments known as thylakoids.
 The interior of a thylakoid is called thylakoid lumen.
In most plant sps, thylakoids are interconnected to
form stacks called grana. Grana are stacks of up to
100 disk- like structure res called thylakoids where
the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis takes
place.
 Within thylakoids is the photosynthetic pigment
called chlorophyll.
CONT…
3.2.1. PHOTOSYNTHETIC
PIGMENTS
 Photosynthetic cells contain special pigments
w/c absorb light energy.
 d/t pigments respond to d/t wavelengths of
visible light & reflect only certain wavelength.
 This makes them to appear colorful.
 More important than their reflection of light is
ability of pigments to absorb certain
wavelengths.
 However, since each pigment reacts with only a
narrow a range of spectrum, there is a need to
produce several kinds of piments, each of d/t
color, to capture more solar energy.
 There are 3 basic classes of pigments.
 CONT…
 Chlorophylls are greenish pigments w/c
contain a porphyrin ring.
 This ring has potential to gain or lose
electrons easily & whereby providing energy
electrons to other molecules.
 There are several kinds of chlorophyll, w/c
most important one is chlorophyll a.
 It is a green pigment found in all plants,
algae & cyanobacteria & absorb violet &
orange at most.
 The 2nd kind of chlorophyll is chlorophyll b
occurs only in green algae & in plants &
 CONT…
 The 3rd form of chlorophyll is chlorophyll c w/c
is found only in photosynthetic members of
chromista & dinoflagellates.
 Carotenoids usually red, orange or yellow
pigments & they include familiar cpds
carotene w/c gives carrots their color.
 Carotenoids cannot transfer sunlight energy
directly to photosynthetic pathway, but must
pass their absorbed energy to chlorophyll.
 For this reason, they are called accessory
pigments.
 One very visible accessory pigment is
fucoxantin, the brown pigment whose colors
 CONT..
 Phycobilins are H2O soluble pigments & are
therefore, found in cytoplasm or in stroma of
chloroplast.
 They occur only in cyanobacteria & rhodophyta.

Absorption spectra of photosynthetic

pigments
- An absorption spectrum is a graph that shows
absorption from spectrophotometer. fig 3.5 shows
absorption at wave lengths from 400-700 nm by 3
pigments, chlorophyll a, b & carotenoids.
- Chlorophyll a absorbs violet-blue & reddish
orange-red wavelengths
CONT…
 Chlorophyll b - absorbs mostly blue & yellow
light .
 Both chlolophyll a & b absorb light of other
wave lengths with less intensity.
 However none of them absorbs green so that
leaf looks green b/c light is reflected to our
eyes instead of being absorbed by leaf.
 Carotenoids are ubiquitous & essential
pigments in photosynthesis.
 They absorb in blue-green region of solar
spectrum transfer absorbed energy to bacterio
chlorophylls & expanding wavelength range of
light that is able to photosynthesis.
CONT…
 Only absorbed light largely blue & red
are useful in photosynthesis.
 3.2.2 LIGHT –DEPENDENT
& LIGHT INDEPENDENT
REACTIONS
 Inside a chloroplast, photosynthesis occurs in 2
stages: the light-dependent & light independent
or calivin cycle rxns.
1.Light dependent rxns:- called light rxns.
- Steps of photosynthesis that require light energy.
- Cyclic & non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
- Light rxns are steps of photosynthesis that
convert solar energy to chemical energy.
- Takes place in grana of thylakoids.

- H O split, providing a source of e-s & H+ ions or

2
protons & giving off O2 as byproduct.
CONT…
 Light absorbed by chlorophyll drives transfer of e-s
& H+s from H2O to an acceptor called NADP+ where
they are temporarily stored.
 The e- s acceptor NADP+ is the 1st cousin to NAD+
w/c functions as e-s carrier in cellular respiration;
 The 2 molecules differ only by presence of an extra
P group in NADP+ molecule.
 The light rxns use solar energy to reduce NADP+ to
NADPH by adding a pair of e-s along with H+.
 Light rxns do not produce sugar.
 It also generate ATP, using chemiosmosis to power
addition P group to ADP by photophosphorylation.
 Thus, light energy is initially converted to chemical
energy in the form of 2 cmpds called NADPH & ATP.
 CONT…
- NADPH, a source of e-s, acts as reducing
power that can be passed along to an
electron acceptor, reducing it,
- While ATP is versatile energy currency of
cells.
CONT…
CONT…
LIGHT-DEPENDENT & LIGHT-
INDEPENT RXNS OF
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosystem: is an arrangement of photosensitive
molecules that is linked to an ETC.
- Both the molecules & the ETC are bound to the
thylakoid membrane.
- A photosystem is made up of the antenna complex,
w/c is cluster of accessory pigments around a rxn
center molecule, w/c is always chlorophyll a.
- There are 2 photosystems .
- In order of their appearance in the process of
photosynthesis, they are PS2(680nm) & PI(700nm).
- PsII discovered 2nd but comes 1st but PSI discovered
1st & comes 2nd.
CONT…
Photosystem I & photosystem II
1. Electrons(e-) in chlorophyll molecules in
photosystem II are excited by the energy in
photons of light : they become more
energetic.
-B/c of the extra energy , they escape from
chlorophyll & pass to an electron acceptor or 1 0
electron acceptor.
2. The conditions created in the chloroplast
cause the ff rxns to be occur:
2H2O O2 +4H + + 4e-s
- This light –dependent splitting of H2O is called
photolysis. The e-s replace those lost from
CONT…
3. The 10 e- acceptor passes e-s to next molecule
in an ETC ( Pq-plastoquinone).
- The e-s then pass along a series of cytochromes
( similar to those in the mitochondrial ETC).
- Finally to plastocyanin-Pc- the last carrier in the
chain.
- The e-s lose energy as they are passed from
one carrier to the next.
4. One of the molecules in the cytochromes
complex is a proton or H+ ion pump.
- As e-s are transferred to & then transferred from
this molecule, the energy they lose powers the
pump w/c moves protons from stroma of the
chloroplast to space inside thylakoid.
CONT…
 This leads to an accumulation of protons
inside thylakoid, w/c drives the chemiosmotic
synthesis of ATP.
5. e-s in chlorophyll molecules in photosystem I
are excited ( as this photosystem absorb
protons of light) & escape from the molecule.
- They are replaced by the e-s that have
passed down ETC from photosystem II.
6. The e-s then pass along a 2 nd ETC involving
Fd –ferredoxin & NADP reductase .
- At the end of ETC , they can react with H + ions
& NADP in the stroma of the chloroplast to form
reduced NADPH.
CONT…
 Products of photosynthesis
- Steps of light rxns produce 3 chemical
products;
O2, NADPH & ATP.
1. O2 is produced in the thylakoid lumen by the
oxidation of H2O by photosystem II.
- 2e-s are removed from H2O, w/c produces
2H+ & 1/2O2. The 2e-s are transferred to
P680moleculs.
2. NADPH is produced in stroma using high-
energy e-s that start in photosystem II &
boosted a 2nd time in photosystem I.
- 2 high-energy e-s & one H+ are transferred to
NADP+ to produce NADPH.
 3.2.5. LIGHT-INDEPENDENT
RECTIONS (CALVIN CYCLE)
 This the 2nd step of in mechanism of
photosynthesis.
 The chemical processes of photosynthesis
that occurring independent of light are called
dark rxns.
 It takes place in the stroma of chloroplast.
 The dark rxns is purely enzymatic & it is
slower than light rxns.
 In a dark rxns, the sugars are synthesized
from CO2.
 The energy poor CO2 is fixed to energy-rich
cmpd, ATP & the assimilatory power, NADPH2
C3-PLANTS
 Are plants capable of fixing Co2 into a 3-C
sugar called phosphoglycerate (PGA).
 Live in temperate area.
 Energy from ATP & NADPH carries generated
by photosystems is used to phosphorylate the
PGA.
 In this process, CO2 enters a plant through its
stomata & the enzyme Rubisco fixes C into
sugar using Calvin cycle.
 This fixation of CO2 by Rubisco is 1st step of
Calvin cycle.
 The plants that use this mechanism of C-
fixation are called C3 plants.
CONT...
 E.g. of C3 plant are wheat, rye, oats ,orchard
grass.
 The photosynthesis process can take place
only when stomata on leaves are open.
 C3 plants exhibit C3 pathway.
 It is a 3C-CMPD (3-PGA).
 Here 1st C-cmpd produced has 3C atoms
hence the name C3 pathway.
 The light-independent rxns of Calvin cycle can
be organized into 3 basic stages, fixation,
reduction & regeneration.
CONT…
1. C-fixation:-
- A molecule of CO2 is combined with a C-acceptor
molecule containing 5 atoms known as ribulose-1,5-
biphosphate (RuBP).
- This step gives rise to a cmpd having 6C atoms that
disintegrate into 2 molecules of a cmpd containing
3C called 3-phosphoglyceric acid(3-PGA).
- This rxn is catalyzed by enzyme RuBP carboxylase, or
rubisco.
2. Reduction:-
- In the 2nd stage of Calvin cycle, ATP & NADPH are
utilized to change 3-PGA molecules into a sugar
containing 3C atoms called glyceraldehyde -3-
phosphate G3P.
- This stage has derived its name from fact that
CONT…
3. Regeneration:-
- Some G3P molecules form glucose, while
others need to be recycled so that they can
regenerate RuBP acceptor .
- regeneration needs ATP & involves a complex
series of rxns called carbohydrate scramble.
- In dark rxns, CO2 is fixed to carbohydrates &
CO2 acceptor ribulose diphosphate is
regenerated.
- In Calvin cycle, 12NADPH2 & 18ATP s are
required to fix 6CO2 into one hexose sugar
molecule (fructose-6-phosphate).
CONT…
2. C4-plants:- found in tropics.
- In some plants like maize, sorghum, &
sugarcane, 1st product of CO2-fixationis no 3C
phosphoglycerate but 4C cpd oxaloacetic acid.
- Plants that utilize this pathway are commonly
called C4-plants.
- The oxaloacetic acid is formed when CO2 is
bound to a cmpd known as
phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) in mesophyll cell.
- Oxaloacetic acid is reduced to malic acid or
aspartic acid & malic & aspartic acid is
decarboxylated to yield CO2 & pyruvic acid in
the bundle sheath cell.
-
CONT…
CONT…
1. Fixation of CO2 by carboxylation of
phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) in the mesophyll
cells to form a C4 acid.
2. Transport of C4 acids to bundle sheath cells.
3. Decarboxylation of C4 acids within the
bundle sheath cells & generation of CO2,
w/c is then reduced to carbohydrate via
Calvin cycle.
4. Transport of the C3 acid pyruvate or alanine
w/c formed by decarboxylation step back to
mesophyll cell regeneration of CO2 acceptor
phosphoenolpyruvate.
CONT…
CONT…
3. CAM- plants:-
- Are called crassulacean acid metabolism.
- Found in desert area.
- CAM mechanism enables to improve H2O use
efficiency.
- The CAM mechanism is similar in many
respects to the C4 cycle.
- In C4 plants, formation of C4 acids in
mesophyll is spatially separated from
decarboxylation of C4 acids & from refixation
of resulting by Calvin cycle in bundle sheath.
- In CAM plants, formation of C4 acids is both
temporally & spatially separated.
CONT…
 At night CO2 is captured by PEP carboxylase in
cytosol & maltase that forms from oxaloacetate
product is stored in vacuole.
 During day time, stored malate is transported to
chloroplast & decarboxylated by NADP- malic
enzyme, released CO2 is fixed by Calvin cycle &
NADPH is used for converting decarboxylated
triose phosphate product to starch.
 CAM plants are succulent –H2O storing plants.
 Such as cacti achieve their high H2O use efficiency
by opening their stomata during cool, desert night,
closing them during hot, dry days.
 Closing stomata during day minimize H2O loses,
but b/c H2O & CO2 share the same diffusion
pathways, CO2 must taken up at night.
CONT…
 CO2 incorporated via carboxylation of
phosphoenolpyruvate to oxaloacetate, w/c is
then reduced to malate.
 The malate accumulated & stored in the large
vacuoles that are typical, but not obligatory,
anatomic features of leaf cells of CAM plants.
 The accumulation of substantial amounts of
malic acid, equivalent to amount of CO2
assimilated at night, has long been recognized
as a nocturnal acidification of the leaf.
 With on set of day, the stomata close,
preventing loss of H2O & further uptake of CO2.
 The leaf cells deacidify as reserve of vacuolar
malic acid are consumed.
CONT…
 B/c of stomata are closed, internally released
CO2 cannot escaped from leaf & instead its
fixed & converted to carbohydrate by the
Calvin cycle.
 PHOTORESPIRATION
hotorespiration:- is a process w/c involves
xidation of organic cpds in plants by O 2 in the
esence of light.
ike ordinary respiration, this process also releases
from organic cmpds in the form of CO2 but does
ot produce ATP.
Thus, apparently it seems to be wasteful process,
but it must have some functions w/c are still
unknown.
This process occurs in C3 plants & to some extent
n C4.
Photorespiratory substrate is glycolate.
Rubisco instead of combining with CO2 it combines
with O2. This type of oxidation of O2 to RuBP
CONT…
 Generally photorespiration is expressed by
term called CO2 compensation point.
 It is defined as CO2 conc. at w/c rate of uptake
will be equal to the rate of photosynthetic
respiratory CO2 released.
 Photorespiration is common in C3 plants but
highly reduced in C4 plants & absent in CAM
plants
CONT…
.3. CONTRIBUTIONS OF
HOTOSYNTHESIS FOR THE
ONTINUITY OF LIFE, FOR O2 &
O2 BALANCE & GLOBAL WARMING
 O2 in air comes from photosynthesis.
 Plants continues to replenishes O2 in the air.
 All of our food comes directly or indirectly
from photosynthesis.
 Human beings are also dependent on ancient
products of photosynthesis like fossil fuels,
natural gas, coal & petroleum.
 Needed for modern industrial energy;
complex mix of H.C. etc.
CONT…
3.4. CELLULAR RESPIRATION
 Is process by w/c cells produce energy from glucose in the form of energy
storing cmpd called ATP for d/t cellular activities.
 Energy released by cellular respiration is temporarily captured by
formation of ATP with in cell.
 It is energy currency of cell & this can compared to depositing cash in
bank.
 ATP can be used to store energy for future use rxns or withdrawn to pay
for rxns when energy required by cells.
 Animals store energy obtained from breakdown of food as ATP.
 Likewise, plants capture & store energy they derive from light during
photosynthesis in ATP molecules.
 ATP is a nucleotide consisting of adenine base attached to ribose sugar,
w/c is attached to 3P-groups.
 These 3P-groups are linked to one another by 2 high-energy bonds called
phosphoanhydride bonds.
 When one P-group is removed by breaking a phosphoanhydride bond in a
process called hydrolysis, energy is released & ATP is converted to ADP.
CONT…
Similarly, energy is also released when P
removed from ADP to form AMP.
This free energy can be transferred to other
molecules to make unfavorable rxns in a cell
favorable.
AMP can then be recycled into ADP or ATP by
forming new phosphoanhydride bonds to store
energy once again.
In the cell, AMP, ADP & ATP are constantly
interconverted as they involve in biological rxns.
CONT…
 COUPLED REACTIONS
Many biochemical rxns in w/c energy is given off
is called exothermic rxns.
Whereas many other rxns that require energy are
called endothermic rxns.
In order for both processes to be carried out
efficiently, they must be coupled.
Usually, a coupled rxns will involve ATP.
A coupled rxns is carried out when 2 rxns occur
simultaneously.
The 1st rxns must be exothermic & that gives off
energy.
CONT…
 The 2nd rxns is endothermic, w/c immediately
uses energy produced from 1st rxns.
 CONT…
 An e.g. of coupled rxns is hydrolysis of ATP &
contraction of muscle tissue.
 2 proteins, actin & myosin, form loose
complex called Actomyosin.
 When ATP is added to isolated actomyosin,
protein fibers contract.
 The hydrolysis of ATP releases energy w/c is
used by muscles to contract.
 The coupled rxns:

A. ATP + H2O = ADP+ P+ energy

B. Relaxed muscle + energy= contracted
muscle
CONT…
 When ATP is used up by muscles, a further
supply of energy is released from creatine-P.
 Another e.g. of coupled rxns is hydrolysis of
creatine –P to release energy w/c in turn is
used for formation of more ATP.
 The coupled rxns is:

A. Creatine-PO4 + H2O = Creatine H + HPO4-3

+ energy.
B. ADP + HPO4-3 energy = ATP + H2O
- During of low muscular activity, the rxns are
reversed so to replenish supplies of ATP &.
- The energy for formation of ATP is supplied by
other Creatine P metabolic rxns.
3.4.1. THE SITE OF CELLULAR
RESPIRATION
 Glycolysis:- occurs in cytosol of cell & does
not require O2.
 Whereas the Krebs cycle & ETC occur in
mitochondria & require O2.
 Cellular respiration is carried out by both
prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells.
 In prokaryotic cells, it is carried out in
cytoplasm.
 Whereas in eukaryotic cells it begins in
cytosol then is carried in mitochondria.
 CONT…
 In eukaryotes, 4 stages of cellular respiration
includes glycolysis, link/transition/pyruvate
oxidation, Krebs/citric acid cycle & oxidative
phosphorylation through ETC.
3.4.2. Stages of respirations
- Cellular respiration involves many chemical
rxns.
- The rxns can summed up in equations:
 CONT…
 Aerobic respiration is divided into 4 main
stages:
- Glycolysis, Link rxn, Krebs cycle & ETC.
STAGE I: GLYCOLYSIS
 Occurs in cytosol of cell in an anaerobic resp.
 It is common pathway, of both anaerobic &
aerobic resp.
 It begins cellular resp. by breaking glucose
into 2 molecules of 3C-cmpd called pyruvate.
CONT…
CAN BE GROUPED INTO 3
PHASE
 The 1st phase (1-3) involves an energy
investment.
 2 ATP molecules are hydrolyzed & the P from
those ATP molecules are attached to glucose,
w/c converted to fructose-1,6-biphosphate.
 The energy investment phase raises the free
energy of glucose, there by allowing later rxns
to be exergonic.
 The cleavage phase (steps 4-5) breaks this 6C
molecule into 2 molecules of G3P.
 The energy liberation phase (steps 6-10)
produces 4 ATP, 2 NADH, & 2 molecules of
pyruvate.
CONT…
STAGE II:- PYRUVATE
OXIDATION
 Called link rxns & No formation of ATP.
 In order to oxidize to pyruvate, w/c is product
of glycolysis & enter into next pathway, it
must undergo several changes to become
acetyl Coenzyme A or acetyl CoA.
 Acetyl CoA is a molecule w/c further converted
to oxaloacetate, w/c enters Krebs cycle.
 The conversion of pyruvate to Acetyl CoA is a
3 step process.
Step 1
-A carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate
releasing CO2 into surrounding.
CONT…
 Note: CO2 is one C-attached to 2O2 atom &
ones of major end products in cellular
respiration.
Step 2:
- The OH- group is oxidized to an acetyl group &
e-s are picked up by NAD+, forming NADH( the
reduced form of NAD+).
- The high- energy e-s from NADH will be used
later by cell to generate ATP for energy.
Step 3:
-The enzyme bound acetyl group is transferred
to CoA.
- This molecule of acetyl CoA is then further
converted to be used in the next pathway of
CONT…
CONT…
 The Acetyl-CoA molecules enter Krebs cycle,
NADH goes to ETC to produce ATP.
 CO2 diffuses out of cell as a waste product.
 The protons (2H+) stay in the matrix.
STAGE III: KREBS CYCLE
 Called citric acid cycle.
 It begins when acetyl-CoA combines with a 4C
cpmd called OAA or oxaloacetate .
 This produces citric acid w/c has 6C atoms.
 This is why krebs cycle is also citric acid cycle.
 After citric acid is formed, it goes through a
series of rxns that release energy.
 The energy is captured in molecules of NADH,
ATP & FADH2, another energy carrying cpmd.
 CO2 is also released as product of these rxns.
 The final step of krebs cycle regenerates OAA,
the molecule that began krebs cycle.
 2 turns are needed b/c glycolysis produces 2
pyruvate when it splits glucose.
CONT…
STAGE IV: OXIDATIVE
PHOSPHORYLATION
 It is the process in w/c ATP is formed as a result
of transfer of e-s from NADH & FADH2 to O2 by
series of e-s carrier.
 This process, w/c takes place in mitochondria, is
the major source of ATP in aerobic organisms.
 Oxidative phosphorylation generates 26 out of
30 molecules of ATP that are formed when
glucose is completely oxidized to CO2 & H2O.
The 3 major steps in oxidative phosphorylation
are:
1. Oxidation-reduction rxns involving e- transfers
b/n specialized proteins embedded in the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
2. The generations of protons (H+) gradient
CONT…
3. The synthesis of ATP using energy from
spontaneous diffusion of e-s down proton
gradient generated in step 2.
-The NAD & FADH2, formed during glycolysis, link
rxns & TCA cycle, give up their e-s to reduce
molecular O2 to H2O.
- e- transfer occurs through a series protein e-
carriers.
- The final e- acceptor is O2 & pathway is called
ETC.
- The function of ETC is to facilitate controlled
release of free energy that was stored in
reduced cofactors during catabolism.
CONT..
 Energy is released when e-s are transported from
higher energy NADH/FADH2 to lower energy O2.
 This energy is used to phosphorylate ADP.
 There are 3 sites of the chain that give enough
energy for the ATP synthase.
 These sites are:

Site I: b/n FMN & Coenzyme Q at enzyme complex I.

Site II: b/n cyt b & cyt C1 at enzyme complex III.
Site III: b/n cyt a & cyt a3 at enzyme complex IV.
- B/c energy generated by transfer of e-s through
ETC to O2 is used in production of ATP, the over all
process is known as oxidative phosphorylation.
- This oxidation process refers to coupling of ET in
respiratory chain with phosphorylation of ADP to
form ATP.
CONT…
 It is a process by w/c energy of biological
oxidation is ultimately converted to chemical
energy of ATP.
 Oxidative phosphorylation is responsible for
90% of total ATP synthesis in cell.
 Oxidative phosphorylation is the process in
w/c ATP is formed as a result of transfer of e-s
from NADH or FADH2 to O2 by a series of e-
carriers.
CONT…
CONT…
CONT…
 Mechanism:
-Mechanism suggest that the transfer of e-s
through ETC causes Protons to be
translocated/pumped out from mitochondrial
matrix to intermembrane space at 3 sites of ATP
production.
- i.e. it acts as a proton pump resulting in an
electrochemical potential d/c across the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
- The electrical p.d. is due to the accumulation
of +vely charged H+ ions outside membrane.
- Whereas the chemical p.d. is due to the d/c in
PH when it is more acidic outside the
membrane.
 CONT…
The energy budget of one glucose
molecule
- As from one glucose molecule 2 pyruvate
molecules are formed so that 2 cycles
will be formed for complete breakdown.
- So the total yield will be 6NADH, 2FADH2
& 2ATP.
CONT…
CONT…
 Energy from non-carbohydrate sources
-We obtain energy from fats, proteins, sucrose
& other disaccharides & Starch, Polysaccharide.
- All these organic molecules in food can be
used by cellular respiration to make ATP.
- Glycolysis can accept a wide range of
carbohydrate for metabolism.
- In the digestive tract, starch is hydrolyzed to
glucose, w/c can then be broken down in the
cells by glycolysis & the citric acid cycle.
- Glycogen in humans & many other animals
store in their liver & muscle cells as fuel for
respiration.
CONT…
 Protein also used for fuel & 1 st digested into A.A.
 Many A.A. are used to build new proteins.
 A.A present in excess are converted by enzymes
to intermediates of glycolysis & citric acid cycle.
 Before A.A can feed into glycolysis or citric cycle,
their amino groups must be removed by a process
called deamination.
 The nitrogenous refuse is excreted from animal in
the form of NH3, urea or wastes.
 Catabolism also harvest energy stored in fats.
 After fats digested to glycerol & F.A., the glycerol
is converted to G3P, an intermediate of glycolysis.
 Most energy of fat is stored in the F.A. A metabolic
sequence called Beta-oxidation breaks F.A. breaks
down to 2C-fragments, w/c enter the citric acid
CONT…
 NADH & FADH2 are also generated during beta
oxidation; they can enter ETC, leading to
further ATP production.
 Fat makes excellent fuels, in large part due to
their chemicals structure & high energy level
of their e-s (equally shared b/n C & H
compared to those of carbohydrates.
 A gram of fat oxidized by respiration produces
more than twice as much ATP as gram of
carbohydrate.
 Unfortunately, this also means that a person
trying to lose weight must work hard to use up
fat stored in body b/c so many KJ are stock
piled in each gram of fat.
CONT…
CONT…
CONT…
FERMENTATION
what happens in the anaerobic pathway?
-in the process of glycolysis, a net 2ATP was
produced, 2NAD+ were reduced, 2NADH+H &
glucose was split into 2 pyruvate molecules.
- When O is not present, pyruvate undergo a
2
process called fermentation, the NADH+H
from glycolysis will be recycled back to NAD+
so that glycolysis can continue.
- In the process of glycolysis, NAD+ is reduced
is not present, glycolysis will not be able to
continue.
- During aerobic respiration, the NADH formed
in the glycolysis will be oxidized to reform
NAD+ for the use in glycolysis again.
CONT…
 When O2 is not present or if an organisms is not able to
undergo aerobic respiration, pyruvate will undergo a
process called fermentation.
 Fermentation does not require O2 & is therefore
anaerobic.
 Fermentation will replenish NAD+ from NADH+H
produced in glycolysis.
 One type of fermentation is alcoholic fermentation.
 1st, pyruvate is decarboxylated(CO2 leaves) to form
acetaldehyde to ethanol.
 H2 atoms from NADH+H+ are then used to help to
convert acetaldehyde to ethanol where NAD+.
 Facultative anaerobes are organism that can undergo
fermentation when they are deprived of O2. Yeast is an
e.g. of a facultative anaerobe that will undergo alcohol
fermentation.
CONT…
LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION
 L. acid fermentation is process by w/c pyruvate
molecules are converted to lactic acid in muscle
cells of humans & also in cell of bacteria.
 During l. acid fermentation, pyruvate molecules
from glycolysis are used to oxidize NADH &
convert it back to NAD+. During process, lactic
acid or lactate is produced as a byproduct.
 Most animals & some bacteria are carry out L.
acid fermentation.
 Animals use the process to generate NAD+ in the
absence of O2.
 Anaerobic respiration doesn’t produce enough
ATP to power the entire organisms, but can be
used to supplement ATP levels in muscles or
tissue where O2 levels drops quickly.
CONT…
 The products of bacterial lactic acid
fermentation have been used by humans to
produce food products such as yogurt, sour
cream & buttermilk.
THANK YOU!
 The end!