Gordon Allport and His Dispositional

Theory, Eysenck McCrae and Costa Trait

& Factor Theories & The Psychology of
Personal Constructs (By George Kelly)
 Part - I
Gordon Allport and His Dispositional Theory

What is trait?

o A trait is a characteristic that can be used to describe a person. For example, Sadia is sensitive,
kind, and honest. In addition, a trait is a personal characteristic we have that generally stays
the same over time and is resistant to change. These traits shape individual thoughts, feelings,
and the way they behave in different situations.
o According to Allport, personality traits are the basic units on which our personalities
are structured, or an individual personality is made up of the traits that he/she
possesses.
o Unlike many other theories of personality, such as psychoanalytic or humanistic theories, the
trait approach to personality is focused on differences between individuals. A combination of
traits and interaction between these various traits constitute a personality. And because every
person is unique, every personality is unique too. Trait theory is focused on identifying and
measuring these individual personality characteristics.
 Background on
Gordon Allport:
o Gordon Allport was a highly regarded and
influential American scholar in psychology. He
was born in 1897. He was the youngest of four
brothers and was described as shy but also
hard-working. Allport came from a hard-working
family who valued health and education. This
translated into Allport’s desire “to understand
human motivation, drives, and personality.”
o When Allport met Freud, he explained a story
about a young boy he had seen on the train
during his travels to Vienna and he had a fear of
dirt. Allport had hypothesized that the boy had
developed the phobia from his mother. In
response, Freud turned the conversation
around, asking Allport if the boy was him.
o Behaviorism, Allport believed, did not dig
deeply enough. Instead, Allport chose to reject
both psychoanalysis and behaviorism and
decided to focus on studying personality. After
this experience, Allport went back to Harvard to
 Part - I
Gordon Allport and His Dispositional Theory

Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory:

o Gordon Allport was one of the first modern trait

theorists. Allport and Henry Odbert worked
through two of the most comprehensive
dictionaries of the English language available and
extracted around 18,000 personality-describing
words.
o According to Allport, an individual's personality is
influenced by their childhood experiences, present
environment, and the interaction between the two
concepts; this was a groundbreaking hypothesis.
Allport organized the personality traits into a
 Three Levels of Traits

Cardinal Traits: Have a strong pull over an individual's Central Traits: Central traits are the general
thoughts, feelings, and actions. Overall, cardinal traits characteristics that form the basic foundations of
are considered rare and do develop over the years. When personality. Central traits are the main characteristics
they’re present, cardinal traits shape the person, their that describe another person. Central traits are the main
self-concept, emotional composition, their attitudes, and factors that determine most of our behaviors. He also
their behaviors. described that these traits are those that might be
mentioned in a letter of recommendation or certification.

Examples:
Examples:
● Mother Teresa: Good, charitable
● Shy
● Albert Einstein: Brilliant
● Talkative
● Martin Luther King, Jr.: Just, heroic
● Touchy
● Abraham Lincoln: Honest
● Kindness
● Loyalty
 Three Levels of Traits

Secondary Traits:
o Secondary traits are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences. These secondary traits are
difficult to detect because they’re stimulated by a narrower range of equivalent triggers.
These traits may be so inconspicuous or weak that only a close friend would notice evidence of
them. They represent traits, such as, ‘likes sour candy’ or ‘prefers foreign cars’.
Examples:
● Public speaking anxiety
● Impatience while waiting in the line
o Genotypes are internal forces that relate to how a person retains information and uses it
to interact with the world. Phenotypes are external forces that relate to the way an
individual accepts his or her surroundings and how others influence his or her behavior.
Difference between Cardinal and Central Traits: Cardinal traits are very rare and
dominant that nearly all of the individual’s actions can be traced back to them. Whereas,
central traits are defined as characterizing an individual’s behavior to some extent but not in
a complete way as cardinal traits.
Five Factor Model

o This model arose in 1949 when D.W Fiske

investigated the validity of Cattell’s 16-
factors of personality and found supporting
evidence for only 5 out of 16 factors. During
the 1980s and 1990s, more research was
conducted into these 5 factors and showed
consistency across interviews, self-
description, and observation, and was found
applicable to a diverse range of participants
varying in age and ethnicity, and culture.
o Given its congregational research, the
model elaborated by Paul Costa and
Robert McCrae is the most infamous
with its 5 traits denoted by the acronym
OCEAN:
 Five Factor Model

Openness To Experience: Conscientiousness:

o ‘Openness to experience’ also recognized as  Also recognized as ‘efficient/organized vs.
‘inventive/curious vs. consistent/cautious’ easy-going/careless’ refers to an individual’s
encompasses the arts, emotions, adventure, goal-directed behavior including traits such as
unusual ideas, curiosity, and a variety of self-discipline, competence, thoughtfulness, and
experiences. dutifulness.
o This factor describes a person’s preference for  Those who score higher in conscientiousness are
spontaneity over routine; it’s been tried and seen to prefer planned over spontaneous
tested to show that those who score higher in behavior and have been known to be organized,
openness to experience prefer more spontaneity hardworking, and dependable; due to this,
and novelty, while those who score lower on this research has found a positive correlation between
factor opt for routine and structure. a high score on conscientiousness and academic
success.
 Five Factor Model

Extraversion
 ‘Outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved’ Agreeableness
characterizes the personality type as either
extrovert or introvert. Those who score high on
o Often characterized as
the extraversion factor are often high in ‘friendly/compassionate vs. cold/unkind’
energy, optimistic, talkative, assertive, social measures the degree of compassion and
butterflies, and often seen out in the company cooperation in an individual with others.
of others for stimulation – extroverts. o It measures the person’s degree of trust and
 Meanwhile, those who score low on this are helpfulness, as well as if they are well-
often solitary, prefer a smaller group to a lot of tempered. Those who have a low score on
people, enjoy the quiet, opt for solitary agreeableness are often described as rude and
activities, and avoid large social gatherings – uncooperative.
introverts
 Five Factor Model

Neuroticism
Also described as ‘sensitivity/nervous vs. secure/confident’ is characterized by the tendency to
experience emotions like anger, depression, anxiety, and vulnerability. This factor refers to an
individual’s emotional stability and impulse control, those who score high on neuroticism experience
emotional instability and are often seen to be angry, hostile, and impulsive; often correlating to
unhappiness.
Criticism
 Critics argue that this theory has limitations as an explanatory and predictive theory as it does
not explain all of the human personality. While others believe that this model neglects aspects of
personality like religiosity, manipulative/Machiavellianism, thriftiness, conservativeness,
femininity/masculinity, honesty, sense of humor, etc.
 The statistical method used to identify the variables lacks a universally recognized basis for
solutions with different numbers of factors.
 The final criticism of the model is that it is not based on an underlying theory and is more
empirical in finding certain descriptors clustered together under an umbrella term.
 PART II – EYSENCK, MCCRAE & COSTA TRAIT &
FACTOR THEORIES

How can personality be measured?

Psychologists seek to measure personality through a number of methods, the most common of which are
objective tests and projective measures.
o Personality assessment is the measurement of personal characteristics.
o The scientific approach to personality measurement is to describe human characteristics in quantitative
terms. Quantitative personality measurement is especially useful in comparing groups of people as well as
individuals.
o Personality tests provide measures of such characteristics as feelings and emotional states,
preoccupations, motivations, attitudes, and approaches to interpersonal relations.
o Personality assessment techniques include interviews, rating scales, self-reports, personality inventories,
projective techniques, and behavioral observation
 PART II – EYSENCK, MCCRAE & COSTA TRAIT &
FACTOR THEORIES

1. Self-Report Tests of Personality: Questionnaires and Inventories:

One way of measuring personality involves asking individuals to respond to a self-report
inventory or questionnaire. Self-reports contain questions or statements to which
individuals respond in various ways.
 MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)
 Psychoneurosis Scales
 Psychosis Scales
 Psychosomatic Scales
2. Projective Measures of Personality:
Projective techniques present individuals with ambiguous stimuli that can be interpreted
in many different ways. The answers given by respondents will reflect various aspects of
their personality.
 TAT
 Rorschach Test
 PART II – EYSENCK, MCCRAE & COSTA TRAIT &
FACTOR THEORIES

3. Other Measures: Behavioral Observations, Interviews, and Biological Measures:

 Interviews are also used to measure specific aspects of personality. Interviews are used to measure
the Type A behavior pattern, an important aspect of personality closely related to personal health.
 Biological measures of personality have also been developed. Some of these use positron emission
tomography (PET) scans to see if individuals show characteristic patterns of activity in their brains
patterns that are related to differences in their overt behavior.
 Objective observation of a subject’s behavior is a technique that falls in the category of behavioral
assessment. Observation includes the person’s observable behavior and usually does not require the
assessor to draw complex inferences about such topics as attitudes toward parents, unconscious
wishes, and deep-seated conflicts.
4. Rating scales
Rating scales present users with an item and ask them to select from a number of choices. The rating scale
is similar in some respects to a multiple choice test, but its options represent degrees of a particular
characteristics.
 PART II – EYSENCK, MCCRAE & COSTA TRAIT &
FACTOR THEORIES

How many traits or personality dispositions does a single person possess?

 The idea of personal traits or disposition was presented by Gordon Allport. He suggested the self or
proprium. the word proprium, which is Allport’s name for that essential concept, the self. Is composed of
the aspects of your experience that you see as most essential. And as the self is developing we are also
developing personal traits or personal dispositions.
 A personal disposition is defined as “a generalized neuropsychic structure, with the capacity to render
many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide consistent forms of adaptive and stylistic
behavior.” in other words dispositions are concrete, easily recognized, consistent in our behaviors.
 Eysenck's Personality Theory

Eysenck proposed a theory of personality based on biological factors, arguing

that individuals inherit a type of nervous system that affects their ability to learn
and adapt to the environment. Eysenck found that their behavior could be
represented by two dimensions:
Extraversion/Introversion
Extraverts are sociable and crave excitement and change, and thus can become
bored easily. They tend to be carefree, optimistic, and impulsive. Eysenck argues
that this is because they inherit an under aroused nervous system and so seek
stimulation to restore the level of optimum stimulation. Introverts on the other
hand lie at the other end of this scale, being quiet and reserved.
Neuroticism/Stability
A person’s level of neuroticism is determined by the reactivity of their
sympathetic nervous system. A stable person’s nervous system will generally be
less reactive to stressful situations, remaining calm and level-headed. Someone
high in neuroticism on the other hand will be much more unstable, prone to
overreacting to stimuli, and may be quick to worry, anger or fear.
 Dimensions of
Personality
o Extraversion:
Extraversion is a trait that many will have come across in their
own lives. It’s easily identifiable and widely recognizable as
“someone who gets energized in the company of others.”
o Agreeableness:
People who exhibit high agreeableness will show signs of trust,
altruism, kindness, and affection. Highly agreeable people tend
to have high prosocial behaviors which means that they’re more
inclined to be helping other people.
o Neuroticism:
Neuroticism is characterized by sadness, moodiness, and
emotional instability. Often mistaken for anti-social behavior, or
worse a greater psychological issue, neuroticism is a physical
and emotional response to stress and perceived threats in
someone’s daily life.
o Conscientiousness:
Conscientiousness is a trait that includes high levels of
thoughtfulness, good impulse control, and goal-directed
behaviors.
 Biological Basis of Personality

According to Eysenck, personality factors P, E, and N all have powerful biological determinants. He
estimated that about three-fourths of the variance of all three personality dimensions can be accounted for
by heredity and about one-fourth by environmental factors.
Personality and Behavior
Eysenck (1995) also hypothesized that psychoticism (P) is related to genius and creativity. Children with
the same creative potential who are also high in psychoticism (P) are able to resist the criticisms of parents
and teachers and emerge as creative adults. It was reported that both high P scorers and high Escorts are
likely to be troublemakers as children (1975).
Personality and Disease
People who scored low on neuroticism (N) on the Maudsley Personality Inventory tended to suppress their
emotions and were much more likely than high N scorers to receive a later diagnosis of lung cancer. These
diseases are caused by an interaction of many factors. Personality factors interact with a variety of
biological factors to contribute to heart disease. One such interaction was for smoking, neuroticism, and
emotional reactivity; that is, high P scorers who smoke and who react to stress with anger, hostility, and
aggression increase their risk for heart disease.
 Biological Basis of Personality

McCrae and Costa’s Five-Factor Model (FFM) explained …

o Since the late 1980s and early 1990s, most personality psychologists have opted for the Five-Factor
Model. The five factors have been found across a variety of cultures, using a plethora of languages. In
addition, the five factors show some permanence with age; that is, adults; in the absence of
catastrophic illness such as Alzheimer’s, tend to maintain the same personality structure as they grow
older.
o McCrae and Costa agreed with Eysenck that personality traits are bipolar and follow a bell-shaped
distribution. That is, most people score near the middle of each trait, with only a few people scoring at
the extremes. The Five-Factor Theory has been used to assess personality traits in 50 cultures
throughout the world.
 Evolution of the Five Factor Theory

Originally, the five factors constituted nothing more than a taxonomy, a classification of basic personality
traits. By the late 1980s, Costa and McCrae became confident that they and other researchers had found a
stable structure of personality.
By the 1980s, the rift between classical theories and modern research-based theories had become quite
pronounced. For them, “the old theories can not simply be abandoned: “They must be replaced by a new
generation of theories that grow out of the conceptual insights of the past and the empirical findings of
contemporary research”
Units of the Five-Factor Theory
In the personality theory of McCrae and Costa, behavior is predicted by an understanding of three central
or core components and three peripheral ones. The three central components include:
● Basic tendencies
● Characteristic adaptations
● Self-concept
 Evolution of the Five Factor Theory

Core Components of Personality

Basic tendencies:
These may be inherited, imprinted by early experience, or modified by disease or psychological
intervention, but at any given period in an individual’s life, they define the individual’s potential and
direction. Basic tendencies include cognitive abilities, artistic talent, sexual orientation, and the
psychological processes underlying the acquisition of language.
Characteristic Adaptations:
The acquired personality structures develop as people adapt to their environment. The principal difference
between basic tendencies and characteristic adaptations is their flexibility. Whereas basic tendencies are
quite stable, characteristic adaptations can be influenced by external influences, such as acquired skills,
habits, attitudes, and relationships that result from the interaction of individuals with their environment.
Self-concept:
McCrae and Costa wrote that it “consists of knowledge, views, and evaluations of the self, ranging from
miscellaneous facts of personal history to the identity that gives a sense of purpose and coherence to life”
PART III – THE PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS
(BY GEORGE KELLY)

Philosophical Position:
o The psychology of personal constructions, like other theories, is based on a philosophical
presupposition. In this scenario, the premise is that whatever nature may be, or however the hunt for
the truth will ultimately turn out, the events we are witnessing today are subject to as many different
constructions as our imaginations will allow.
o This is not to argue that one structure is superior to another, nor does it rule out the possibility that at
some endless point in the future, human vision will see reality at its most extreme but it does serve as a
reminder that all of our current perceptions are open to questioning and reconsideration, and it does
imply that even the most mundane events in daily life could be completely transformed if we were
creative enough to interpret them differently.
o This philosophical position we have called constructive alternativism, and its implications, keep cropping
up in the psychology of personal constructs. It can be contrasted with the prevalent epistemological
assumption of accumulative fragmental, which is that truth is collected piece by piece.
PART III – THE PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS
(BY GEORGE KELLY)

How Personal Construct Theory Works:

o According to personal construct theory, humans form personal constructs
about how the world works. Kelly felt that we begin by establishing a
collection of personal constructs, or mental representations that we use to
interpret events.
o Rather than viewing human beings as passive subjects who were at the
whims of the associations, reinforcements, and punishments they
encountered in their environments(behaviorism) or their unconscious
wishes and childhood experiences (psychoanalysis).

What makes these structures so important?

o We view the world through the "lens" of our conceptions, according to
Kelly. These constructions help us foresee and anticipate occurrences,
which influence our actions, feelings, and ideas.
o Personality is composed of the various mental constructs through which
each person views reality. Kelly believed that each person was much like a
scientist. Just like scientists, we want to understand the world around us,
 How We Use Constructs?

Kelly believed that the process of using constructs works in much the same way that a scientist utilizes a
theory. First, we begin by hypothesizing that a particular construct will apply to a particular event. We then
test this hypothesis by applying the construct and predicting the outcome. If our prediction is correct, then
we know that the construct is useful in this situation and we retain it for future use.
But what happens if our predictions don't come true?
o We might reconsider how and when we apply the construct, we might alter the construct, or we might
decide to abandon the construct altogether. Recurrences play an important role in personal construct
theory.
o It is essential to remember the emphasis on individuality in personal construct theory. Constructs are
inherently personal because they are based on each person's life experiences.
o Kelly believed that people have a fundamental need to predict the events that they experience. They do
so by developing a system of personal constructs, which they use to interpret or construe new events.
Understanding the implications of the corollaries is an important key to understanding the psychology
itself.
 How We Use Constructs?

 Construction Corollary: A person anticipates events by construing their replications.

 Individuality Corollary: Persons differ from each other in their construction of events.
 Organization Corollary: Each person characteristically evolves, for his convenience in anticipating events, a construction
system embracing ordinal relationships between constructs.
 Dichotomy Corollary: A person’s construction system is composed of a finite number of dichotomous constructs.
 Choice Corollary: A person chooses for himself that alternative in a dichotomized construct through which he anticipates the
greater possibility for extension and definition of his system.
 Range Corollary: A construct is convenient for the anticipation of a finite range of events only.
 Experience Corollary: A person’s construction system varies as he successively construes the replications of events.
 Modulation Corollary: The variation in a person’s construction system is limited by the permeability of the constructs within
whose range of convenience the variants lie.
 Fragmentation Corollary: A person may successively employ a variety of construction subsystems that are inferentially
incompatible with each other.
 Commonality Corollary: To the extent that one person employs a construction of experience which is similar to that employed
by another, his psychological processes are similar to those of the other person.
 Sociality Corollary: To the extent that one person construes the construction processes of another, he may play a role in a
social process involving the other person
 Examples of Personal Construct Theory

o Consider how different people approach the same experience in different ways. Two friends are at a carnival and see a
roller coaster.
o The first person gets excited and immediately wants to ride it. The second person is horrified, has a fear response, and
wants to go on another ride. Personal construct theory would suggest these two different responses are explained by
differing constructs- the two people have different individual experiences and mental frameworks that make them perceive
the roller coaster in wildly different ways.
Adventure vs. Risk
In this case,
 The first person has a construct for security vs. adventure, where they see security as boring and stagnant and adventure
as desirable.
 The second person has a personal construct for security vs. risk, where they see security as desirable and safe and risk
represents fear and insecurity.
Friendly vs. Unfriendly
Imagine that two friends are out for a walk in the park when a large dog runs toward them. One person might have a personal
construct that suggests that dogs are friendly, lovable creatures that respond to affection and warmth. The other person,
however, believes that dogs are intimidating and potentially dangerous. Because of these two differing constructs, the first
person responds by approaching the dog while the other shrinks back and tries to avoid the animal.