Introduction

Communication:
o Means sharing information

• Local (face to face) or remote (over distance)

o Telecommunication

• Telephone, telegraph and television

• Means communication at a distance
• Tele in Greek for far
Contd…
Data:
 Refers to information

• Presented in any form

• Agreed upon by the parties (creating & using)

Data communication : is the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission
medium (wire cable) or wirelessly.
Contd…
 Communication system made up of a combination of hardware and software

 Effectiveness of data communication system depends on:

 Delivery: The system must deliver data to correct destination. Data received by the intended
user only
Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately (no change).

o Data changed & uncorrected is unusable

Timeliness: The system must deliver data in timely manner
o Data arrived late are useless
o In the same order (video and audio) & without delay (Real time transmission)

 Jitter: Variation in the packet arrival time (uneven quality in the video is the
result)
Components
 A data communication system has five components

o Message

o Sender

o Receiver

o Transmission Medium

o Protocol
Fig.: Five components of data communication
Contd…
 Message: the information (data) to be communicated

Text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video

 Sender: the device that sends the data message

Computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on

 Receiver: the device that receives the message

Computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on

 Transmission Medium: Physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver.

Twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable and radio waves.

 Protocol: Set of rules that governs data communications. It represents an agreement between
the communicating devices.
Data Representation

Text Numbers Image

Audio Video
Data Flow

 Communication between two devices can be:

o Simplex
o Half-Duplex
o Full-Duplex
 Contd…

Simplex (one way street)

o The communication is unidirectional
o Only one device on a link can transmit; the other can only receive
o Use the entire capacity of the channel to send data
o Example: Keyboards, Monitors

Data
 Contd…

Half-Duplex (one-lane with two-directional traffic)

o Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time
o When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa
o The entire capacity of a channel is taken over by the transmitting device
o Example: Walkie-talkies

Data

Data
Contd…
• Full-Duplex (Duplex) (two-way street)
• Both stations can transmit and receive at same time
• Signals going in either direction sharing the capacity of the link
• Sharing can occur in two ways:
• Link has two physically separate transmission paths
• One for sending and the other for receiving
• The capacity of the channel is divided between signals travelling in
both directions
• Example: Telephone network Data

Data
 Exercise

• What mode of data flow the following exhibits shows?

Data

Data

• Answer: Full-Duplex
 Networks
 A network is a set of devices (nodes) connected by communication links.
 Node:
Computer, printer, or any other devices capable of sending and/or receiving data
 Link:
Cable, air, optical fiber, or any other medium which can transport a signal carrying
information
Network Criteria
 Performance:

 Measured: Transit time and response time

o Transit time: time required for a message to travel from one device to another.

o Response time: elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.

Reliability: Measured by

o Frequency of failure

o Recovery time of a network after a failure

Security:

o Protecting data from unauthorized access

o Protecting data from damage and development

Physical Structure
Type of connection
o Network: Two or more devices connected through links

o Link: Communication pathway that transfers data from one device two another

o Two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time.
Two possible types:
o Point-to-Point

o Multipoint
Point-to-Point
o Dedicated link between two devices

o Entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices

o Use an actual length of wire or cable

Multipoint
o More than two devices share a single link

o Capacity is shared

o Channel is shared either spatially or temporally

o Spatially shared: if devices use link at same time

o Timeshare: if users must take turns

Physical Topology
o The way a network is laid out physically

o Two or more links form a topology

o The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and
linking devices (nodes) to one another.

Topology

Mesh Star Bus Ring

Mesh Topology

o Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every

other device.

o The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only
between the two devices it connects

o To link n devices fully connected mesh has: n ( n - 1) / 2

physical channels (Full-Duplex)

o Every device on the network must have n-1 ports

Contd…
Advantages Disadvantages

o Each connection carry its own data (no o Amount of cabling and the number of I/O

traffic problems) ports required.

o A mesh topology is robust. o Installation and reconnection are difficult.

o Privacy or security. o Sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater

o Fault identification and fault isolation. than the available space.

o Hardware required to connect each I/O

device could be expensive.
 Star Topology
o Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller (Hub).

o No direct traffic between two devices.

o High speed LAN (Local Area Network) often use a star topology with a central hub.
 Contd…
Advantages Disadvantages

o Less expensive than a mesh topology o If the hub goes down, the whole system

o Easy to install and reconfigure goes down

o Additions, moves, and deletions required o More cabling than other topologies (ring

one connection or bus)

o Robustness : one fail does not affect others

o Easy fault identification and fault isolation

 Bus Topology
o Nodes are connected to the bus by a drop line and taps.

o A drop line is a connection running between device and the main cable.

o A tap is a connector

o One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.

Tap Drop Line

Terminator Backbone Cable

Node
Contd…
Advantages Disadvantages

o Ease of installation o Difficult reconnection and fault isolation

o Less cabling (Mesh and Star) o Adding new device requires modification
of backbone

o Signal reflection at the taps can cause

degradation

o A fault or break in the bus cable stops all

transmission
 Ring Topology
o Each device has dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices on either side of it

o A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device to device until it reaches its destination

o Each devices incorporates a Repeater

o When a device receives signal to be passed, its repeater regenerates bits and passes along.
 Contd…
Advantages Disadvantages

o Easy to install and reconfigure o Unidirectional traffic

o Fault isolation is simple o Break in the ring can disable the entire
network.
Hybrid Topology
Network Categories
Network category is determined by its size and its physical architecture

Network

Local area Wide area Metropolitan area

network (LAN) network (WAN) network (MAN)
 Local area network (LAN)
o Privately owned and links devices in the same office,

building, or campus

o LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between

PCs or workstations (Hardware or software).

o One of the computers has a large capacity disk drive and may

become a server to clients.

o LAN use only one type of transmission medium (Bus, ring

and star).

o LAN speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps.

o LAN covers an area < 2 miles.

Wide area network (WAN)
o Provide long distance transmission of data, image, audio and video information over large areas.

o In contrast to LAN, WAN may utilize public or private communication equipment's or both.
 Metropolitan area network (MAN)
o Its size is in between LAN and WAN.

o Covers the area inside a town or a city.

o Example: Cable TV network used for high-speed data connection to the internet.
 The Internet
o Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives.

o It has affected the way we do business as well as the way we spend our leisure time.

o Internet is a communication system that has brought a wealth of information to our fingertips and
organized it for our use

o The Internet is a collaboration of more than hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks

Internet Today
o Made of many LANs and WANs

o Every day new networks area added and removed

o Internet services Providers (ISPs) offer services to the end users

• International service providers

• National service providers

Data
• Regional service providers rate
• Local service providers
 Protocols and Standards
o Protocol synonymous with rule
o Standards: agreed-upon rules

Protocols
o A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications

o Defines What, How, and When it is communicated

Elements of protocol
Elements of a protocol:
o Syntax: Structure or format of data

Example: 8-bits address of sender, 8-bits address of receiver

o Semantics: meaning of each section of bits

Example: Does an address identify the route to be taken or the final

destination of the message?
o Timing: when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent

Example: Sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data
at only 1 Mbps  overload and data will be lost.
 Standards
o Essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for equipment manufactures

o Guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data and telecommunication technology and
processes

o Providing guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and other service providers to
ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today’s marketplace and in international
communications
 Contd…
Data communication standards fall into two categories:

De facto: Not approved by an organized body but adopted as standards through widespread use

De jure: Legislated by an officially recognized body

Standards Creation Committees

o International Standards Organization (ISO):

̶ Developing cooperation in the realms of scientific, technological and economic activity.

o International Telecommunication Union (ITU):

̶ Research and establishment of standards for telecommunication in general

 Contd…
o American National Standards Institute (ANSI):

o Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE):

̶ It aims to advance theory, creativity and product quality in the fields of electrical engineering,
electronics and radio as well as in all related branches of engineering.

o Electronic Industries Association (EIA):

̶ Promotion of electronics manufacturing concerns.

Network
Models
 Introduction
o A network is a combination of hardware and software that sends data from one location to
another.

o The hardware consists of the physical equipment that carries signals from one point of the
network to another.

o The software consists of instruction sets that make possible the services that we expect from a
network.
LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example, let us consider two
friends who communicate through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services available from the post office.
Figure: Tasks involved in sending a letter
Contd…

At the Sender Site

o Higher Layer: The sender writes the letter, inserts the letter in an envelope, writes the
sender and receiver addresses and drops the letter in a mailbox.
o Middle Layer: The letter is picked up by a letter carrier and delivered to the post office.
o Lower Layer: The letter is sorted at the post office; a carrier transports the letter.
 Contd…

At the Receiver Site

o Lower Layer: The carrier transports the letter to the post office.

o Middle Layer: The letter sorted and delivered to the recipient's mailbox.

o Higher Layer: The receiver picks up the letter, opens the envelope, and reads it.
 THE OSI MODEL
o Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated
to worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late
1970s.
o The purpose of OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication between different systems
without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.

ISO is the organization.OSI is the model.

Figure: Seven layers of the OSI model

Application 7

Presentation 6

Session 5

Transport 4

Network 3

Data link 2

Physical 1
Figure: The interaction between layers in the OSI model
 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
In this section we briefly describe the functions of each layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

o Physical Layer
o Data Link Layer
o Network Layer
o Transport Layer
o Session Layer
o Presentation Layer
o Application Layer
 Physical layer
o The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical
medium.
o It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission
medium.
Services Provided
• Physical characteristics of the media
• Representation of bits
• Data rate
• Synchronization of bits
• Line configuration
• Physical topology
• Transmission mode
 Data link layer
o The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one node to the next.
o It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (Network layer)

Services Provided
• Framing
• Physical addressing (MAC address)
• Flow control
• Error control
• Access control
 Network layer

o The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possible
across multiple networks (links).
o The data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems on the same
network.
o The network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination.

Services provided:
• Logical addressing (IP address)
• Routing
 Transport layer
o The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message.
o We need a port number, to choose among multiple processes running on the destination host
o The network layer oversees source-to-destination delivery of individual packets.
o The transport layer ensures both error control and flow control at the source-to-destination level.

Services provided:
• Service-point (Port) addressing
• Segmentation and Reassembly
• Connection control
• Flow control
• Error control
NOTE

Data Link Layer requires the MAC address (48 bits address contained
inside the Network Interface Card (NIC) of every host machine) of
source-destination hosts to correctly deliver a frame and the Network
layer requires the IP address for appropriate routing of packets, in a
similar way Transport Layer requires a Port number to correctly deliver
the segments of data to the correct process amongst the multiple
processes running on a particular host. A port number is a 16-bit address
used to identify any client-server program uniquely.
 Session layer
o The session layer is the network dialog controller.
o It establishes, maintain and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.

Services provided:
• Dialog control
• Synchronization
 Presentation layer
o The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression and encryption.

Services provided:
• Translation
• Encryption
• Compression
 Application layer
o The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
o It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access
and transfer and other types of distributed information services.

Services provided:

• Files transfer and Access

management (FTAM)

• Mail Services

• Directory services
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
o TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol

o The TCP/IP model was developed by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) as a practical
framework based on standard protocols to address immediate needs of reliable communication over the
internet.

o The TCP/IP model is widely used and forms the basis of the internet. The OSI model, while not as
directly applied in network architecture, serves as a comprehensive guide for understanding and
designing network systems.
Contd…

(Internet)
 Host-to-network Layer
o This is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

o The host-to-network layer is the combination of the physical layer and data link layer defined
in the OSI reference model.

o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the
same network.
 Network (Internet)
Layer
o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

o TCP/IP supports internetworking protocol.

o Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

Internetworking protocol (IP):
 IP is a low-level internet protocol that facilitates data communications over the internet.
 IP delivers packets of data that consist of a header, which contains routing information, such
as the source and destination of the data and the data payload itself.
 IP provides no error checking or tracking. It doesn’t keep track of the routes and has no
facility for reordering datagrams once they arrive at their destination.
 Contd…
ARP:

 ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

 ARP is used to find out the physical address of the node when its IP address is known.

RARP:

 RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol.

 It allows a host to discover its IP address when it knows only its physical address.

 It is used when a computer is connected to a network for the first time.

 Contd…
ICMP:

 It stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

 It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram

problems back to the sender.

IGMP:

 It stands for Internet Group Message Protocol.

 It is used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a message to a group of recipients.

 Transport Layer
o The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which
is being sent over the network.

o The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol (UDP) and
Transmission control protocol (TCP).
User Datagram protocol (UDP)

It is responsible for identifying errors as well as maintaining source port address,

destination port address, check sum error control and length information to the data
from the upper layer.
 Contd…
Transmission control protocol (TCP)

o This protocol is responsible for the proper transmission of segments over the communication
channel.

o It is connection-oriented protocol. This means a connection must be established between both

ends of a transmission before either can transmit data.

o It divides a stream of data into smaller units called segments. Each segment includes a sequence
number for reordering after receipt.
 Application Layer
o The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation and
application layer in the OSI model.

o The application layer maintains a smooth connection between the application and user for data
exchange and offers various features as remote handling of the system, e-mail services, etc.
LINE CODING
Introduction
o Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals.
o Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal.
o At the sender, digital data are encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the
digital data are recreated by decoding the digital signal.
Contd…
Signal Element Vs. Data Element

o A data element is the smallest entity that

can represent a piece of information (bit).
o A signal element is the shortest unit (time
wise) of a digital signal.
o In digital data communications, a signal
element carries data elements.
o Data elements are what we need to send;
signal elements are what we can send.
 Contd…
Data Rate Vs. Signal Rate

o The data rate defines the number of data elements (bits) sent in 1s.
o The unit is bits per second (bps).
o The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in 1s.
o The unit is the baud.
o The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate; the signal rate is sometimes called the
pulse rate, the modulation rate, or the baud rate.
o The relationship between data rate and signal rate is given by
S=C × N × 1/r baud
Where N is the data rate (bps); C is the case factor, which varies for each case; S is the number of
signal elements; and r is the previously defined factor.
Example

A signal is carrying data in which one data element is encoded as one signal element (r=1). If the
bit rate is 100 Kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate if c is between 0 and 1?

Solution:
We assume that the average value of C is 1/2. The baud rate is then
S= c × N×1/r =1/2 × 100000 ×1/1 =50,000= 50 kbaud
 Contd…
o Baud rate determines the required bandwidth for a digital signal.

o The bandwidth reflects the range of frequencies we need.

o Bandwidth is proportional to the signal rate (baud rate). The minimum bandwidth is given by

Bmin= C × N × 1/r
 Contd…
Baseline wandering

A receiver will evaluate the average power of the received signal (called the
baseline) and use that to determine the value of the incoming data elements. If the incoming
signal does not vary over a long period of time, the baseline will drift and make it difficult for the
receiver to decode correctly.

NOTE

A good line coding scheme needs to prevent baseline wandering

 Contd…
o Self synchronization: The clocks at
the sender and the receiver must
have the same bit interval.

o If the receiver clock is faster or

slower it will misinterpret the
incoming bit stream.

Figure: Effect of lack of synchronization

Figure: Line coding schemes
 Unipolar

o All signal levels are on one side of the time axis - either above or below

o NRZ - Non Return to Zero scheme is an example of this code. The signal level does not return
to zero at the middle of the bit.

o In this scheme, positive voltage defines bit 1 and zero voltage defines bit 0.
 Polar
o The voltages are on both sides of the time axis.

o Polar NRZ scheme can be implemented with two voltages. E.g. +V for 1 and -V for 0.

o There are two versions:

• NRZ - Level (NRZ-L) - positive voltage for one symbol and negative for the other

• NRZ - Inversion (NRZ-I) - the change or lack of change in polarity determines the value of a
symbol. If there is no change, the bit is 0; if there is a change, the bit is 1.
 Figure: Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes

NOTE

The main problem with NRZ encoding occurs when the sender and receiver clocks are
not synchronized. The receiver does not know when one bit has ended and the next bit is
starting.
 Example
A system is using NRZ-I to transfer 1-Mbps data. What are the average signal rate and minimum
bandwidth?

Solution
The average signal rate is S= c ×N ×R = 1/2 × N × 1 = 500 kbaud. The minimum bandwidth for
this average baud rate is Bmin = S = 500 kHz.
Note c = 1/2 for the avg. case as worst case is 1 and best case is 0
 Polar - RZ

o The Return to Zero (RZ) scheme uses three voltage values. +, 0, -.

o Each symbol has a transition in the middle. Either from high to zero or from low to zero.

o This scheme has more signal transitions (two per symbol) and therefore requires a wider
bandwidth.

o No DC components or baseline wandering.

o More complex as it uses three voltage level. It has no error detection capability.
Figure Polar RZ scheme
Polar - Biphase: Manchester and Differential
Manchester
o Manchester coding consists of combining the RZ and NRZ-L schemes.

• Every symbol has a level transition in the middle: from high to low or low to high. Uses
only two voltage levels.

o Differential Manchester coding consists of combining the RZ and NRZ-I schemes.

• Every symbol has a level transition in the middle. But the level at the beginning of the
symbol is determined by the symbol value. One symbol causes a level change the other does
not.
Figure Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes

0 1
In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding, the transition
at the middle of the bit is used for synchronization.
 Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary

o Code uses 3 voltage levels: - +, 0, -, to represent the symbols (note not transitions to zero as in
RZ).

o Voltage level for one symbol is at “0” and the other alternates between + & -.

o Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) - the “0” symbol is represented by zero voltage and the
“1” symbol alternates between +V and -V.

o Pseudoternary is the reverse of AMI.

Figure Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary
 Multilevel Schemes

o In these schemes we increase the number of data bits per symbol thereby increasing the bit rate.

o Since we are dealing with binary data we only have 2 types of data element a 1 or a 0.

o We can combine the 2 data elements into a pattern of “m” elements to create “2 m” symbols.

o If we have L signal levels, we can use “n” signal elements to create L n signal elements.
 Contd…

o Now we have 2m symbols and Ln signals.

o If 2m > Ln then we cannot represent the data elements, we don’t have enough signals.

o If 2m = Ln then we have an exact mapping of one symbol on one signal.

o If 2m < Ln then we have more signals than symbols and we can choose the signals that are more
distinct to represent the symbols and therefore have better noise immunity and error detection as
some signals are not valid.
 NOTE

In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data elements is encoded as a pattern of n signal

elements in which 2m ≤ Ln.
 Representing Multilevel
Codes
o We use the notation mBnL, where m is the length of the binary pattern, B represents binary
data, n represents the length of the signal pattern and L the number of levels.

o L = B binary, L = T for 3 ternary, L = Q for 4 quaternary.

Figure Multilevel: 2B1Q scheme
Figure Multilevel: 8B6T scheme
 Multilevel using multiple channels

o In some cases, we split the signal transmission up and distribute it over several links.

o The separate segments are transmitted simultaneously. This reduces the signaling rate per link -
> lower bandwidth.

o This requires all bits for a code to be stored.

o xD: means that we use ‘x’ links

o YYYz: We use ‘z’ levels of modulation where YYY represents the type of modulation (e.g.
pulse ampl. mod. PAM).

o Codes are represented as: xD-YYYz

Figure Multilevel: 4D-PAM5 scheme
 Multitransition Coding

o Because of synchronization requirements we force transitions. This can result in very high
bandwidth requirements -> more transitions than are bits (e.g. mid bit transition with inversion).

o Codes can be created that are differential at the bit level forcing transitions at bit boundaries.
This results in a bandwidth requirement that is equivalent to the bit rate.

o In some instances, the bandwidth requirement may even be lower, due to repetitive patterns
resulting in a periodic signal.
Figure Multitransition: MLT-3 scheme
 MLT-3
o Signal rate is same as NRZ-I

o But because of the resulting bit pattern, we have a periodic signal for worst case bit pattern:
1111

o This can be approximated as an analog signal a frequency 1/4 the bit rate!
Table Summary of line coding schemes
SAMPLING
 Introduction
o Most of the signals we use in our daily life are in analog in nature (E.g. Speech, Weather
signals etc.).

o Digital system possess many advantages in comparison to analog system such as: immune to
noise, can be stored, processed with more efficient algorithms, secure and cost effective etc.

o Hence there is a need to convert our analog signal to discrete time signal in order to process
them properly through digital signal processors. This conversion is done by means of sampling.

o Sampling is the process of converting continuous time signal to discrete time signal.
Figure Three different sampling methods
According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at
least 2 times the highest frequency contained in the signal ( Fs= 2
× Fmax)
Figure Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and bandpass signals
 EXAMPLE 1
A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth of 200KHz. What is the minimum sampling rate for
this signal?

Solution: The bandwidth of a low –pass signal is between 0 and f, where f is the maximum
frequency in the signal. Therefore, we can sample this signal at 2 times the highest frequency
(200KHz). Hence, the sampling rate is 400,000 samples per second.
TRANSMISSION MODES
 Introduction
o The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial
mode.

o In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick. In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with
each clock tick.
Parallel Transmission
o In parallel transmission we use n wires to send n bits
at one time. That way each bit has its own wire, and
all n bits of one group can be transmitted with each
clock tick from one device to another.

o The advantage of parallel transmission is speed. But

the disadvantage is cost. Parallel transmission
requires n communication lines just to transmit the Fig.: Parallel Transmission
data stream. Because this is expensive, parallel
transmission is usually limited to short distances.
 Serial Transmission
o In serial transmission one bit follows
another, so we need only one communication
channel rather than n to transmit data
between two communicating devices.

o Serial transmission reduces the cost of

transmission.
 Asynchronous Transmission
o In asynchronous transmission, we send 1 start bit (0)
at the beginning and 1 or more stop bits (1s) at the
end of each byte. There may be a gap between each
byte.

o Asynchronous means “asynchronous at the byte

level,” but the bits are still synchronized; their
durations are the same.
 Synchronous Transmission
o In synchronous transmission, the bit stream is
combined into longer "frames," which may
contain multiple bytes. Each byte, however, is
introduced onto the transmission link without a
gap between it and the next one. It is left to the
receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes for
decoding purposes.
 Isochronous:
o In real-time audio and video, in which uneven delays between frames are not acceptable,
synchronous transmission fails.

o For example, TV images are broadcast at the rate of 30 images per second; they must be viewed
at the same rate. If each image is sent by using one or more frames, there should be no delays
between frames.

o For this type of application, synchronization between characters is not enough; the entire stream
of bits must be synchronized. The isochronous transmission guarantees that the data arrive at a
fixed rate.